Topic 1: Research Designs in Development Front: Human Development (Definition) Back: The scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death. Front: Why is age a problem in psychological research designs? Back: In an experiment, participants should be randomly assigned to independent variable conditions. However, people cannot be randomly assigned to different age groups. Front: Longitudinal Design (Definition) Back: A research design in which the same participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time. Front: Longitudinal Design: Advantage Back: Looks at real, age-related changes as those changes occur in the same individuals. Front: Longitudinal Design: Disadvantages (2 main points) Back: 1. The huge amount of time, money, and effort involved in following participants over the years. 2. The loss of participants when they move away, lose interest, or die. Front: Cross-Sectional Design (Definition) Back: A research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time. Front: Cross-Sectional Design: Advantages Back: Relatively inexpensive and easier to accomplish than the longitudinal design. Front: Cross-Sectional Design: Disadvantage Back: One is no longer comparing changes in the same individuals as they age; instead, individuals of different ages are being compared to one another. Front: Cohort Effect (Definition) Back: An effect on development when a group of people share a common time period or life experience. (Example: COVID) Front: Cross-Sequential Design (Definition) Back: A research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are followed and assessed for a period of time more than X years. Topic 2: Areas of Development & Big Questions Front: Continuity vs. Discontinuity Back: Does development happen in a continuous progression, or in a series of clear-cut stages? Front: Stability vs. Change Back: What remains stable over the course of human development, and what changes? Front: Physical Development Back: The development of the body; is fairly discontinuous, occurring in clearly defined stages that are distinct from each other. Front: Cognitive Development Back: Development of thinking and reasoning skills; is fairly continuous, and it changes over time. Front: Psychosocial Development Back: Encompasses our social and emotional lives. Front: Temperament (Definition) Back: A child's innate (born) behavioral and emotional characteristics. Front: Attachment (Definition) Back: The first emotional bond a child forms with its primary caretaker; the psychological characteristics and social relationships a person has throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Topic 3: Nature vs. Nurture & Genetics Front: Nature (Definition) Back: The influence of our inherited genes on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. Front: Nurture (Definition) Back: The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. Front: Behavioral Genetics Back: Tries to figure out how much of behavior is influenced by genetic inheritance and how much is due to a person's experiences. Front: Gene (Definition) Back: A section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements. Front: DNA Molecules Back: Contain the instructions for all an organism's traits; these "instructions" are known as genes. Front: Environmental Influences on Development Back: Environmental influences that surround us before birth and during our lives significantly affect our development. (Examples: Parents/caretakers in early childhood; Friends/teachers in mid-to-late teens; Culture) Topic 4: Practice Questions & Scenarios Front: Practice Q1: Psychologists survey 2nd, 6th, 11th graders, and college students on their favorite genre of book at the same time. What type of study is this and why? Back: Cross-sectional. Because it studies different age groups at one single point in time. Front: Practice Q2: Explain why age can sometimes present a problem in psychology studies? Back: Age cannot be manipulated as an independent variable because researchers cannot randomly assign participants to different age groups. Front: Practice Q1: A psychologist does a longitudinal study examining how Patricia's emotions change throughout her school years. What type of development are they examining and why? Back: Psychosocial development. Because it involves studying her emotional changes and social experiences over time. Front: Practice Q2: A therapist asks Bill about his childhood experiences to understand why he has trouble trusting people. Why is that? Back: The therapist asks about Bill's childhood because early childhood experiences and attachment styles with primary caretakers heavily influence our adult psychological characteristics and relationships (Psychosocial development). Front: Practice Q1: Geraldo states: "My personality is completely determined by my genetics. I know this because I am just like my dad." Do you agree or disagree? Why? Back: Disagree. While genetics (nature) play a role, personality is not completely determined by them. Environmental factors (nurture) such as upbringing, culture, and life experiences also play a massive role (as studied in behavioral genetics).