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System Interactions in Animals Tools Finish System Interactions in Animals The human body is made of many different organ systems. Each system performs unique functions for the body, but the systems also interact with each other to perform more complex functions. Major Organ Systems Body Systems In humans, cells, tissues, and organs group together to form organ systems. These systems each perform different functions for the human body. The major organ systems and their functions in humans include: The Nervous System — The nervous systems consists of two parts. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body. The brain plays an important role in interpreting the information picked up by the sensory system. It helps in producing a precise response to the stimuli. It also controls bodily functions such as movements, thoughts, speech, and memory. The brain also controls many processes related to homeostasis in the body. The spinal cord connects to the brain through the brainstem. From the brainstem, the spinal cord extends to all the major nerves in the body. The spinal cord is the origin of spinal nerves that branch out to various body parts. These nerves help in receiving and transmitting signals from various body parts. The spinal cord helps in reflex actions of the body The smallest unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or neuron. Neurons communicate with each other and with other cells by producing and releasing electrochemical signals known as nerve impulses. Neurons consist of the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm. Dendrites are specialized branch-like structures that help in conducting impulses to and from the various body parts. Axons are long, slender extensions of the neuron. Each neuron possesses just a single axon. Its function is to carry the impulses away from the cell body to other neurons. The Circulatory System — The circulatory (or cardiovascular) system is composed of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. The heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of an adult human's closed fist. It is present behind the breastbone, slightly to the left. It consists of four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps this blood to the lugs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygen-rich blood reenters the heart and is then pumped back through the body. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. Blood circulation takes place through blood vessels. Blood vessels are tubular structures that form a network within the body and transport blood to each tissue. There are three major types of blood vessels: veins, arteries, and capillaries. Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart, except for pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs, except for the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. The arteries branch out to form capillaries. These capillaries are thin-walled vessels through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged with cells. The Respiratory System — The main structures of the respiratory system are the trachea (windpipe), the lungs, and the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, it creates a vacuum in the lungs that causes them to fill with air. During this inhalation, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. The trachea branches out into two primary bronchi. Each bronchus is further divided into numerous secondary bronchi. These secondary bronchi further branch into tertiary bronchi. Finally, each tertiary bronchus branches into numerous bronchioles. Each bronchiole terminates into a tiny, sac-like structure known as an alveolus. The walls of each alveolus are thin and contain numerous blood capillaries. The process of gaseous exchange occurs in these alveoli. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle situated at the lower end of the rib cage. It separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, and the chest cavity enlarges, creating a vacuum that allows air to be drawn in. This causes the alveoli in the lungs to expand with air. During this process, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. On the other hand, expansion of the diaphragm causes exhalation of air containing carbon dioxide. The Digestive System — The digestive system consists of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. It is responsible for taking in food, digesting it to extract energy and nutrients that cells can use to function, and expelling the remaining waste material. Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach, while absorption of nutrients and water takes place in the intestines. The digestive system begins at the mouth, where food is taken in, and ends at the anus, where waste is expelled. The food taken into the mouth breaks into pieces by the grinding action of the teeth. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with the breakdown of carbohydrates into simple sugars with the help of salivary enzymes. The chewed food, known as a bolus, enters the stomach through the esophagus. The bolus mixes with acids and enzymes released by the stomach. Protein digestion starts in the stomach as proteins are broken down into peptides. This partially digested food is known as chyme. Chyme enters the small intestine and mixes with bile, a substance secreted by the liver, along with enzymes secreted by the pancreas. The digestion of fats starts in the small intestine as bile and pancreatic enzymes break down fats into fatty acids. The surface of the small intestine consists of hair-like projections known as villi. These villi help in absorbing nutrients from the digested food. The digested food enters the large intestine, or colon, where water and salts are reabsorbed. Any undigested food is expelled out of the body as waste. The Skeletal System — The skeletal system is made up of over 200 bones. It protects the body's internal organs, provides support for the body and gives it shape, and works with the muscular system to move the body. In addition, bones can store calcium and produce red and white blood cells. The Muscular System — The muscular system includes more than 650 tough, elastic pieces of tissue. The primary function of any muscle tissue is movement. This includes the movement of blood through the arteries, the movement of food through the digestive tract, and the movement of arms and legs through space. Skeletal muscles relax and contract to move the bones of the skeletal system. The Excretory System — The excretory system removes excess water, dangerous substances, and wastes from the body. The excretory system also plays an important role in maintaining body equilibrium, or homeostasis. The human excretory system includes the lungs, sweat glands in the skin, and the urinary system (such as the kidneys and the bladder). The body uses oxygen for metabolic processes. Oxygen metabolism results in the production of carbon dioxide, which is a waste matter. The lungs expel carbon dioxide through the mouth and nose. The liver converts toxic metabolic wastes, such as ammonia, into less harmful susbtances. Ammonia is converted to urea, which is then excreted in the urine. The skin also expels urea and small amounts of ammonia through sweat. The skin is embedded with sweat glands. These glands secrete sweat, a solution of water, salt, and wastes. The sweat rises to the skin's surface, where it evaporates. The skin maintains homeostasis by producing sweat in hot environments. Sweat production cools and prevents excessive heating of the body. Each kidney contains about a million tiny structures called nephrons, which filter the blood and collect waste products, such as urea, salts, and excess water that go on to become urine. The Endocrine System — The endocrine system is involved with the control of body processes such as fluid balance, growth, and sexual development. The endocrine system controls these processes through hormones, which are produced by endocrine glands. Some endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, thymus gland, ovaries in females, and testes in males. The Immune System — The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that defends the body against foreign invaders. The immune system uses antibodies and specialized cells, such as T-cells, to defend the body from microorganisms that cause disease. The Reproductive System — The reproductive system includes structures, such as the uterus and fallopian tubes in females and the penis and testes in males, that allow humans to produce new offspring. The reproductive system also controls certain hormones in the human body that regulate the development of sexual characteristics and determine when the body is able to reproduce. The Integumentary System — The integumentary system is made up of a person's skin, hair, and nails. The skin acts as a barrier to the outside world by keeping moisture in the body and foreign substances out of the body. Nerves in the skin act as an interface with the outside world, helping to regulate important aspects of homeostasis, such as body temperature. Interacting Organ Systems The organ systems work together to perform complex bodily functions. The functions of regulation, nutrient absorption, defense, and reproduction are only possible because of the interaction of multiple body systems. Regulation All living organisms must maintain homeostasis, a stable internal environment. Organisms maintain homeostasis by monitoring internal conditions and making adjustments to the body systems as necessary. For example, as body temperature increases, skin receptors and receptors in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus sense the change. The change triggers the nervous system to send signals to the integumentary and circulatory systems. These signals cause the skin to sweat and blood vessels close to the surface of the skin to dilate, actions which dispel heat to decrease body temperature. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are typically involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. The nervous system receives and processes stimuli, and then it sends signals to body structures to coordinate a response. The endocrine system helps regulate the response through the release of hormones, which travel through the circulatory system to their site of action. For example, the endocrine system regulates the level of sugar in the blood by the release of the hormones insulin, which stimulates uptake of glucose by cells, and glucagon, which stimulates the release of glucose by the liver. The nervous and endocrine systems interact with the excretory system in the process of osmoregulation, the homeostatic regulation of water and fluid balance in the body. The excretory system expels excess water, salts, and waste products. The excretion of excessive amounts of water can be harmful to the body because it reduces blood pressure. If the nervous system detects a decrease in blood pressure, it stimulates the endocrine system to release antidiuretic hormone. This hormone decreases the amount of water released by the kidneys to ensure appropriate blood pressure. Appropriate levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are also maintained by homeostatic mechanisms that involve several organ systems. Excess carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular respiration, can be harmful to an organism. As blood circulates throughout the body, it picks up carbon dioxide waste from cells and transports it to the lungs, where it is exhaled while fresh oxygen is inhaled. If the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood increases above a certain threshold, the nervous system directs the lungs to increase their respiration rate to remove the excess carbon dioxide, which ensures that the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are maintained at appropriate levels. In this way, the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems work together to limit the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. Nutrient Absorption To absorb nutrients from food, the nervous, digestive, muscular, excretory, and circulatory systems all interact. The nervous system controls the intake of food and regulates the muscular action of chewing, which mechanically breaks down food. As food travels through the stomach and intestines, the digestive system structures release enzymes to stimulate its chemical breakdown. At the same time, the muscular action, called peristalsis, of the muscles in the wall of the stomach help churn the food and push it through the digestive tract. In the intestines, nutrients from food travel across the surfaces of the villi. The nutrients are then picked up by the blood, and the circulatory system transports the nutrients throughout the cells of the body. The endocrine system releases hormones, such as insulin, that control the rate at which certain body cells use nutrients. Any excess minerals, such as calcium, in the blood are deposited in and stored by the skeletal system. Waste products produced by the use of nutrients, as well as the leftover solid waste from the digestion of food, exit the body through the excretory system. Throughout the process of nutrient absorption, the nervous system controls the muscles involved in digestion, circulation, and excretion. Defense Several body systems interact to defend the body from external threats. The body's first line of defense is the integumentary system, which provide a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body. The skin of the integumentary system also contains receptors for pain, temperature, and pressure. If an unpleasant stimulus is encountered, these receptors send signals to the central nervous system. In response, the central nervous system sends commands to the muscles to move the body part away from the stimulus. In this way, the integumentary, nervous, and muscular systems interact to prevent damage to the body. In the event of a break in the skin, the nervous, immune, lymphatic, and circulatory systems work together to repair the wound and protect the body from pathogens. When the skin is broken, specialized blood cells called platelets form a clot to stop the bleeding. These platelets also release chemicals that travel through the circulatory system and recruit cells, like immune system cells, to repair the wound. These immune cells, or white blood cells, are transported by the circulatory and lymphatic systems to the site of the wound, where they identify and destroy potentially pathogenic cells to prevent an infection. Some lymphocytes, white blood cells produced by the lymphatic system, also produce antibodies to neutralize specific pathogens. All of the white blood cells involved in the body's response were originally produced in the bone marrow of the skeletal system. If an infection does occur

n Mar. 30, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued its judgment on the merits in Certain Iranian Assets, nearly seven years after the case between Iran and the United States was first filed. The Court found that a number of U.S. actions constituted violations of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and the United States, but that the 2018 termination of the Treaty meant that the Court could only award monetary damages and could not order cessation of the United States’ activities.ccccc In a complex opinion touching on issues ranging from “unclean hands” to expropriation, the Court determined that it could not order the United States to unfreeze nearly $1.75 billion in Iranian central bank assets but obligated the United States to compensate Iranian companies for its sanctions and seizure of other assets. Both the United States and Iran were quick to frame the decision as a victory. The United States issued a statement calling the Court’s judgment a “major victory for the United States and victims of Iran’s State-sponsored terrorism.” Meanwhile, Iran’s Foreign Ministry said that the ICJ’s ruling proved Iran’s “righteousness and the violations by the US government.” Factual Background and Iran’s Claims Iran brought this case against the United States in 2016 claiming that the United States had violated both the 1955 Treaty of Amity between the two countries and international law norms on State immunity by permitting private litigants to proceed in suits against Iran and attaching seized Iranian assets to satisfy judgments against Iran obtained in those actions. Iran’s claims are rooted in several legislative and executive acts taken by the United States. These measures culminated in a number of default and substantial damages judgments entered by U.S. courts against Iran and Iranian State-owned entities. In 1996, the United States amended the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) to remove immunity for States designated as “State sponsors of terrorism.” The FSIA’s terrorism exception prompted many plaintiffs to commence proceedings against Iran, which the United States designated as a “State sponsor of terrorism” in 1984, for damages caused by acts allegedly supported by Iran. The Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA), enacted in 2002, permitted enforcement measures for judgements entered pursuant to the 1996 amendment to the FSIA. Importantly, Section 201 of TRIA provides that in these cases, the assets of an entity designated as a “terrorist party” shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution. As a result of President Barack Obama’s Executive Order 13599, the United States blocked all assets of the Iranian government, including those of the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) and of other financial institutions, within U.S. jurisdiction. The United States then adopted the Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (ITRSHRA), subjecting Bank Markazi’s assets to execution to satisfy default judgments against Iran. Bank Markazi challenged ITRSHRA in Bank Markazi v. Peterson, but the Supreme Court upheld the use of nearly $1.75 billion in Central Bank of Iran assets to satisfy judgments in favor of terrorism victims under the FSIA’s terrorism exception. As a result of these executive, legislative, and judicial acts of the United States, Iran initiated proceedings before the ICJ and argued that Iran and its entities were suffering serious and ongoing harm in violation of the Treaty of Amity. Jurisdiction and Admissibility 2019 Judgment on Preliminary Objections Prior to the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court in its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections rejected the United States’ claims that it did not consent to the ICJ’s jurisdiction under the Treaty’s dispute resolution clause which conferred the Court jurisdiction over disputes arising from the Treaty. In addition to objecting the Court’s jurisdiction over the dispute, the United States filed preliminary objections to the admissibility of the case on several grounds including that Iran’s claims were beyond the scope of the Treaty and Iran’s invocation of ICJ jurisdiction, given its history of supporting international terrorism, amounted to an abuse of process. The Court unanimously dismissed United States’ admissibility objections to Iran’s claims. However, the Court determined that it lacked jurisdiction over claims that the United States violated Iran’s sovereign immunity. It also determined that a third objection on jurisdiction, over claims regarding Bank Markazi, was not of a preliminary character and saved a full decision on that objection for full development of the factual record. Jurisdiction over the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) In the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court returned to the outstanding jurisdictional question and determined that it lacked jurisdiction over Iran’s claims relating to alleged U.S. violations of the Treaty of Amity in relation to Bank Markazi. The Treaty grants benefits only to “nationals” (natural persons) and “companies.” The United States successfully argued that Bank Markazi was not a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, and therefore, Iran’s central bank was not protected by the Treaty. This jurisdictional determination was particularly significant because it covered assets of nearly $1.75 billion dollars, representing most of Iran’s overall monetary claims. In reaching its decision, the Court paid particular attention to the “nature” of Bank Markazi’s activities, rather than its legal personality separate from the Government of Iran. Iran contended that Bank Markazi’s investment of dematerialized bonds issued on the U.S. financial market and subsequent management of proceeds from those 22 securities qualified it as a “company” under the Treaty. The ICJ was unconvinced and ruled that the bank did not engage in a sufficient level of activities of a commercial character to be characterized as a “company” entitled to the Treaty’s protections. The Court ruled that Bank Markazi’s operations in the United States are “part of the usual activity of a central bank and inseparable from its sovereign function.” Failure to Exhaust Local Remedies The Court rejected the United States’ objection to admissibility based on Iran’s failure to exhaust local remedies. Under customary international law, a State that initiates an international claim on behalf of its nationals based on diplomatic protection must exhaust local remedies before the claim can be heard. This requirement is also considered satisfied when there are no local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable opportunity to obtain redress. In this case, the Court remarked that each time an Iranian entity sought to have federal statutory provisions set aside by U.S. courts because they were inconsistent with rights provided by the Treaty of Amity, the U.S. court routinely applied the federal law due to it being enacted after the Treaty. Because of this, the Court concluded that the Iranian entities “had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings” and rejected the United States’ challenge to admissibility based on a failure to exhaust local remedies. United States’ Defenses on the Merits The ICJ rejected three separate defenses invoked by the United States. First, it rejected the United States’ contention that Iran had committed an abuse of right by applying the Treaty of Amity to measures it considered to be unrelated to commerce. The Court next dismissed the United States’ defense that its Executive Order 13599, blocking the property of the Iranian government and related financial entities, fell into two carve outs of the Treaty: measures that regulate the production of or traffic in arms and measures that are necessary for a contracting party’s essential security interests. The Court disagreed that the Executive Order fell into either of these two exceptions. It found that the measures in the Executive Order only had an indirect impact on the production of and the traffic in arms by Iran. Additionally, the Court ruled that the Executive Order was not necessary to protect the United States’ essential security interests, noting that the justifications set out in the Executive Order itself were primarily financial rather than security considerations. Finally, the United States asked the Court to dismiss all claims brought by Iran under the Treaty of Amity on the grounds that Iran came to the Court with “unclean hands.” The Court noted it had never upheld that “clean hands” constitutes custom or general principle of law, and that it considers the doctrine with caution. The International Law Commission (ILC) in its Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts also declined to consider “unclean hands” as grounds for a preclusion of wrongfulness, noting it has “been invoked principally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international courts and tribunals, though rarely applied.” Despite its hesitancy to apply the doctrine, the Court stated that even if it were to apply “clean hands” to the case, a nexus between the wrongful conduct imputed to Iran and its claims under the Treaty of Amity would be needed. The Court determined this necessary nexus was missing and rejected the United States’ “unclean hands” defense. Having rejected these defenses, the Court then turned to the merits of Iran’s specific claims. Alleged Violations of the Treaty of Amity Art. III, para. 1 and Art. IV, para. 1 Iran and the United States disagreed on the meaning of Art. III, para. 1, of the Treaty, which provided for Iranian and American companies to “have their juridical status recognized” within the territory of each contracting party. In its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections, the ICJ understood “juridical status” as a company’s own legal personality, sometimes existing as an entity distinct from its associated State. Article IV, para. 1, provides for fair and equitable treatment and prohibits the United States and Iran from taking “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” against each other’s nationals or companies. Iran contended that the United States disregarded the legal personality of Iranian companies within its territory and that the U.S. measures under Section 201(a) of TRIA, Section 1610(g) of the FSIA, and Executive Order 13599 were unreasonable. The Court noted that a measure is unreasonable under the Treaty of Amity when it does not pursue a legitimate public purpose, there is no appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and measure adopted, or it is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose. Although the U.S. measures at issue might have pursued a legitimate public purpose of providing effective remedies to plaintiffs awarded damages and the attachment and execution of a liable defendant’s assets is generally an appropriate relationship with that purpose, the Court found the legislative measures to be manifestly excessive. It noted that TRIA and the FSIA employed very broad terms, capable of encompassing any legal entity regardless of the degree or type of control exercised over them by Iran. The Court ruled that the United States unjustly “lifted the corporate veil,” disregarding the separate legal personality of Iranian companies in liability judgments rendered in cases where the companies could not participate and in relation to underlying facts the companies seemed to be uninvolved in. Additionally, the Court found Executive Order 13599 to be manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose of responding to Iran’s “sustained support of terrorist acts” because it applied in an overinclusive manner to “any Iranian financial institution.” Art. III, para. 2 On Iran’s claim that the United States violated the Treaty’s guarantee of “freedom of access to the courts” and “prompt and impartial justice,” the Court found no violation committed by the United States. Although the application of law by U.S. courts was unfavorable to the Iranian companies, the ICJ noted that the rights of Iranians companies to appear before U.S. court, make legal submissions, and lodge appeals were unimpeded. Art. IV, para. 2 By seizing and attaching the assets of Iranian companies, the Court found that the United States had committed an expropriation contrary to Article IV of the Treaty. The Court only found a violation here with respect to the United States’ measures taken under TRIA and the FSIA, but not those enacted by Executive Order 13599. The Court noted that a judicial decision attaching and executing property or interests in property does not per se constitute a taking or expropriation of that property. Instead, an element of illegality is required. After examining the various legislative, executive, and judicial acts taken by the United States and at issue in this case, the Court relied on its prior finding of unreasonableness to establish that the U.S. measures had not been a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to an expropriation without compensation. However, the Court dismissed Iran’s takings claims directed at Executive Order 13599 because Iran failed to identify affected property of Iranian companies specifically impacted by the executive order beyond Bank Markazi. Because the Court denied jurisdiction over claims related to Bank Markazi, the Court did not find the United States to have committed an unlawful expropriation with Executive Order 13599. On Iran’s claims that the United States failed to afford the most constant protection and security to Iranian companies as provided by Article IV, the Court stated that the United States’ obligation under the Treaty was to protect Iranian companies’ property from actual physical harm. During the proceedings, Iran asserted that the Treaty’s obligation extended beyond protection from physical harm to legal protection of property. The Court refused to extend the protection from physical harm afforded by Article IV, para. 2, to legal harm because of the overlap with the fair and equitable treatment provision in Article IV, para. 1, that would result from accepting Iran’s interpretation. Because the Court already determined that the U.S. measures violated fair and equitable treatment under Article IV, para. 1, it rejected Iran’s claims under Article IV, para. 2. The Court reasoned that paragraph 2 of Article IV was not intended to apply to situations covered by paragraph 1 of that article. Article V, para. 1 The ICJ ruled that the United States did not deprive Iranian companies the right to dispose of their property. Iran’s allegations were predicated on the same set of facts claimed in relation to Article IV, para. 2. The Court understood measures that amount to unlawful expropriation to fall outside the scope of Article V, para. 1. Because the United States’ measures were already deemed to amount to expropriation, the Court concluded that Iran had not established a violation by the United States of the right to dispose of property. Article VII, para. 1 Under the Treaty, the United States did not improperly apply restrictions on the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds. The Court rejected Iran’s interpretation of this provision as imposing a blanket prohibition on any restriction on the movement of capital. Instead, the Court understood the provision to reflect Iran and the United States’ intent to regulate exchange restrictions to preserve bilateral commerce. As Iran did not allege the United States of applying exchange restrictions, the Court dismissed Iran’s claims. Article X, para. 1 Finally, the Court found that the United States had violated its obligations to provide “freedom of commerce” for the Iranian companies. In the Court’s view, “commerce” applies to ancillary activities related to traditional forms of commerce, such as trade in goods. As a result, the Court understood financial transactions, such as trade in intangible assets, to be commerce protected by Article X of the Treaty. To find a breach under this article, the Court was convinced that the United States’ measures were actual impediments to commerce. Because it comprehensively blocked property, Executive Order 13599 qualified as an actual impediment to any financial transaction conducted by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in the United States. Additionally, the attachment and execution of assets of Iranian State-owned companies under the FSIA was also considered to be an actual impediment to the performance of commercial activities by those entities. Finally, the application of both the FSIA and TRIA by U.S. courts was also considered to be a material interference with Iranian commerce within the United States. Remedies Iran requested that the ICJ, having identified certain violations of the Treaty, order the United States to cease conduct that violated its Treaty obligations. However, the Court, citing the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, noted that it could order a cessation of internationally wrongful acts “only if the violated obligation is still in force.” In 2018, the United States had terminated the Treaty by giving Iran advance notice of its withdrawal, and so the Court determined that the relevant obligations were no longer in force and it could not grant Iran’s request for an order of cessation. Finally, on the question of compensation for injury suffered, the Court recognized that the United States is obligated to compensate Iran for the violations it committed. If Iran and the United States are unable to come to an agreement on the amount within two years, the Court will determine the amount due in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. Conclusion Institutionally, a judgment leaving both parties claiming victory is an objectively positive outcome for the ICJ. However, it is unlikely that we have seen the last of this case. Leaving the two countries to reach an agreeable amount of compensation on their own might not inspire confidence given the looming presence of the challenging dynamics between the two countries. The largest share of assets claimed back by Iran were those associated with the Central Bank of Iran. This close to $1.75 billion dollars in assets tied to Iran’s central bank towers over the rest of assets involved in Iran’s successful allegations against the United States. Financially, the United States is off the hook for a significant amount of the assets in dispute. However, unfreezing millions of dollars in assets for Iranian use remains politically sensitive for the United States as Iran advances its nuclear program and faces international criticism for its harsh response to domestic protests sparked late last year. On the other hand, for a country that has sought to convey the wrongfulness of the United States’ sanctions regime against it, Iran was handed a political victory with an international court ruling that some of the United States’ measures were unlawful. The messaging games between the two countries will only continue with the ICJ’s opinion in this case.

6. (Removed) Abort (aetiology, dam examination, necropsy of foetus)

Superior view of skull calvaria removed

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Class 2 reactions( Oxygen is removed completely)

1 What structures make up the gas exchange system in humans? Cartilage rings Trachea Bronchi Larynx Intercostal Muscles Alveoli Diaphragm Ribs Bronchioles Trachea: Moves air from outside the body to inside the lungs. Also called the windpipe Cartilage rings: C-shaped rings that hold open the trachea. Bronchi: The trachea splits into two bronchi, that lead into each lung. Bronchioles: The bronchi split into many smaller tubes that take air throughout the lungs. Ribs: Bones that protect the lungs from damage. Alveoli: At the ends of the bronchioles, where gas exchange takes place. Intercostal muscles: The muscle between the ribs. MHS Year 10 Science - BIOLOGY 2025 How does air, containing oxygen, get into and out of the lungs? Breathing in: Diaphragm contracts and moves down, intercostal muscles contract and move ribs up and out = more space in the chest = air moves in. Breathing out: Diaphragm relaxes and moves up, intercostal muscles relax and move ribs down and in = less space in the chest = air moves out. Carbon dioxide needs to be breathed out as it is toxic and will kill cells. Oxygen needs to be breathed in as it is needed by all cells to release energy from food (respiration) What structures make up the human circulatory system? The heart has 4 chambers, two atrium at the top and 2 ventricle at the bottom. There is a left and right side of the heart. The left side has thicker muscle than the right as it pumps blood a greater distance than the right side. The septum is the muscle between the two sides. There are 3 types of blood vessels. Arteries take blood away from the heart, veins that take blood towards the heart and very thin capillaries join the arteries and veins. Blood is made of a liquid called plasma and blood cells. There are three types of blood cells, red blood cells (carry oxygen) white blood cells (prevent disease) and platelets (form blood clots). 5 What does the heart look like? Aorta Right Vent sorrenated 3 Where does oxygen get into the blood? Air containing lots of oxygen is breathed in. The air travels down the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to the alveoli. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen is needed by all cells for respiration. Oxygen moves from the air in the alveoli into the blood in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Carbon dioxide is made during respiration and is toxic. It is removed from the blood as it travels past the alveoli. It is removed from the body when we breathe out

Denominational switching:  People who move from one sect of Christianity to another  “spiritual supermarket syndrome” “pew hoppers” or “switchers” -> name calling - Growing trend in western world towards denominational switching - People no longer making lifelong commitments to one church but more likely to swap based on where they feel comfortable and are catered for o Contrast to historic patterns where individuals and families traditionally remained affiliated with one denomination for generations - Reflection of modern consumer society - Reason for increase: mobility o Growth in car ownership since 1945 makes it easier to travel to favoured church rather than local parish church - Main losers of switching are older, mainstream, traditional denominations o Lutherans, uniting church, presbyterian, Anglicans NOTE: number of Catholics switching is very low - Pentecostal churches -> reason for switch is charismatic leaders in Pentecostal churches preach with great authority and services include rock bands Interdenominational switching: - Pentecostal churches have been greatest beneficiaries of “switchers” due to: o Aggressive evgelization o Focus on personal salvation o “up-tempo” gospel services o Attractive services to under 40’s in particular o Less focus on social, ethical or moral issues o Personal following of preachers - Revolving door syndrome -> Pentecostal churches loose membership as fast as they are gained Who switches and why? - Under 40s less likely to view lifetime loyalty to particular type of church as important (15%), compared to 60+ (38%) - People with active Christian faiths more likely to switch to seek stronger Christian community and exclusively provided - Family breakdown was another factor -> children of divorce 64% more likely to cease identifying with family faith than those of non-divorced parents o Catholics 1.7x more likely to switch to a moderate protestant (methodist) denomination and 2.6x more likely to switch to conservative protestant (Baptist, evangelical) denomination Denominational dissatisfaction: - Most people who stop attending church regularly don’t stop attending completely -> they continue to be searchers - Found services to be boring - Looking for openness to different views of religious matters and broad approach to worship catering for different spiritualities - Former adherents baulk at ‘hard-line’ moral and ethical stances on contentious issues e.g. abortion Rise of new age religions:  Extremely diverse in nature with focus on fostering individual fulfillment in regard to happiness, health and meaning in life (individualism)  New age religions can be followed instead of traditional religious practices or can be practised alongside traditional religions - Popular bc traditional religions fail to resonate with modern people - New age religions have been growing since 1970s and now include: o Feng shui o Tarot cards o Astrology o Meditation o Scientology o Spiritualism o Philosophy - New age religions tend to reject monotheism, but may except polytheism, worship of nature (pantheism), goddesses, or monism (belief that everything is one) - New age religions often adopt elements of eastern religions, and may incorporate elements of numerology, astrology, yoga, tai chi, paganism and feng shui - Part of appeal is they provide freedom for adherents to pick and choose what they believe fulfills them in spiritual manner - From 1996-2001 140% growth in new age religions in census Reasons for growth include: - Disillusionment with traditional religion and traditional worship - Frustration with slowness of change - Desire for personal fulfillment - Desire to find new ways of seeking inner peace and health - Response to globalisation and de-centring of western ‘truths’ - Ease of travel - Lessening of commitment to traditional structures such as churches Links to religious traditions: - Trend towards new age religions introduced number of Hindu concepts into language and practice of many people who may not necessarily consider themselves religious - Practices include meditation, yoga and concepts such as reincarnation and karma Secularism:  Movement/concept which rejects religious belief or adherence  Belief that religion should not interfere with or be integrated into the public affairs of a society - Significant number of Australians are not religious, and number is still growing - Trend could be result of greater levels of technological and scientific knowledge + perseverance of many religions in antiquated and conservative attitudes - Some perceive to be hypocrisy that religions still try hold themselves to be moral authorities Promotes idea that society would be better off by not being controlled by religion for reasons including: - Pluralism: diversity of beliefs and cultures - Individualism, materialism and scepticism towards supernatural as result of scientific progress - Disillusionment with traditional religions Reasons for reduced membership of religious or attendance at church are varied but include: - Church practices that are boring or unfulfilling - Disagreement with church theology or stance on moral and social issues - Alternative practices that meet same needs as church e.g. social groups - No time for church - Personal dislike of religion - Technology and scientific advances that conflict with church Effects of secularism: - Loss of religious value - Lack of religious church practice e.g. civil marriages, non-religious funerals - Seeking alternative “religions” or “forms of spirituality” - Greater trust in science and belief in supernatural is contradictory to what many believe to be empirically true - Rise of new age religions which focus on personal satisfaction, self-help groups, happiness, mind and spirit exhibitions - Until 1973, australians only had two options for where + how they could get married (church or registry office) o Today 80%+ wedding ceremonies now performed by civil celebrants (up from 50% in 2021) Ecumenical movements within Christianity: - Increasingly secularised society - Involvement in issues of peace and social justice to renew relevance - Multifaith society requires ongoing dialogue with those who have different beliefs and practices - In australia today, relationships between Christian churches (ecumenism) and relations between various religious traditions (interfaith dialogue) are characterised by mutual tolerance and respect Ecumenism: - Movement among Christian churches to promote the restoration of unity among all Christians -> “collective movement” - Aims to bring branches (denominations) of church back to single community of faith or ‘body of Christ’ Sectarianism = Conflict between two groups of a particular faith - Sectarianism found in other countries is less vigorous in Australia Ecumenism is recent philosophical approach in life of church and australians have supported ecumenical ideas - Uniting Church in Australia - National Council of Churches - NSW Ecumenical Council Uniting church: - Formed 22nd June 1977 - Result of union of three individual churches o Congregational union of australia o Methodist church of australia o Presbyterian church of australia - “most significant ecumenical event in Australia’s history” (Francis Rush – Catholic Archbishop of Brisbane) - Particularly known for social justice approach and support for marginalised sections of society National council of churches in Australia: - Umbrella organisation bringing many of Australia’s churches together - Happens in both practical and organisational cooperation and discussion on faith-bade issues - Officially became NCCA in 1994 with inclusion of Catholic Church NSW Ecumenical Council: - Founded in 1982 - Encourages social justice and operates on an ecumenical level to achieve this - Central bond is that they’re all followers of Christ, so there’s unity amongst adherents o Rather than competing against each other, they come together in accordance with sense of Christian duty - Gives churches shared voice when following religious beliefs and undertakings - Involved in community projects such as helping settle refugees and providing accommodation to poor - Christmas Bowl initiative -> local church projects that aid people with needs - Local + international initiatives allow churches to have more significant impact o If they were separated there wouldn’t be as much impact - Domestic violence project -> raises awareness about how to respond to domestic violence and how to support survivors - Commission on middle east -> international initiative where member churches come together to advocate for Christians, minority groups and asylum seekers in Middle East Interfaith Dialogue:  Move to greater cooperation and harmony between people of different religious traditions  Involves positive communication and cooperation resulting from discussion between different faiths  Often involves discussing matters of societal + faith concern  Often led by ecumenical groups within a religion Example: NCCA (est. 1994) has ongoing dialogue with Australian Federation of Islamic Councils and Executive Council of Australian Jewry - Important to include all sectors of each religion “No World Peace without peace between the religions” Importance of interfaith dialogue: - Topics impact everyday Australian life - Discussing impacts of belief or behaviour reduces tension and misunderstanding - Some topics of community concern are important not only to religious community but also wider secular society of Australia and the world * Building understanding, goodwill and sense of community * Consider issues as a whole community * Encourages and allows individuals to learn about each other and different faiths * Encourages activities and projects of commonality within and between faiths * Importance for young people -> idealism and enthusiasm of youth Recent interfaith initiatives: 1991: Australian Council of Christians and Jews - Goal is to recognise common heritage and promote understanding 2004: The Columban Centre for Christian-Muslim Dialogue - Located in Turramurra -> focuses on dialogue between Christians and Muslims particularly among women 2007: one of largest groups to attend the Dalai Lama’s visit to Canberra was the Association for Studies of Religion Presently: as recognised by Cambridge text, the provision of Studies of Religion in the NSW HSC is, in itself, an example of interfaith dialogue 2023: last world parliament of religions in Chicago (where all faiths come together) Atomi Notes (need to fix): Current religious landscape in Australia: Christianity as major religious tradition: Immigration: - Most immigration from Britain 1945: migration brought Christianity into Australia (mainly Catholicism) - Was mainly impacted by new variety of ethnic backgrounds 1945-60: jews arrive from Europe 1960: drastic moves to restrict racial diversity in Australia 1973: white australia policy abandoned - Planned program for asian immigration 1975: asian immigration dramatically increased following Vietnam War - Australia accepted 120,000 refugees from Indochina Post 1975: spike in total Muslim population in Australia Denominational switching: People moving between sects of Christianity - Only comes from people who attend church - Source of information is from National Church Life Survey o Only 8% of people attend church - Christianity not further defined was biggest growing Christian response in 2016+2021 Rise of new age religions: Alternative spiritualities that aim to foster personal happiness, health and meaning in life - Popular bc traditional religions fail to resonate with modern people Mind, body, spirit festival -> Secularism: Belief religion should not interfere with or be integrated into public affairs of society - Promotes ideas that society would be better off by not being controlled by religion o Pluralism: diversity of beliefs and cultures o Individualism, materialism and scepticism towards supernatural as result of scientific progression o Disillusionment Ecumenism: • Impact of movements within australia (syllabus dot point) - Movement for dialogue and mutual understanding between Christian Churches o Response to immigration post 1945 National council of churches australia (NCCA): - Formed 1944 and consists of 18 member Churches across Australia - Runs programs o Act for peace o Safe church awareness o Australian churches refugee taskforce  Aims to apply Christian moral voice to suffering of refugees and asylum seekers  Gives combined Christian churches political voice in scheme of australia’s secularism  Combined power of churches means they have bigger impact on this social issue o Christmas bowl mission  Sends aid assistance to countries throughout Africa, asia, middle east and pacific NSW ecumenical council: - Formed 1982 with 18 member churches - Runs many initiatives o Domestic violence project  Allows church to have greater impact together rather than being separate o Commission on middle east  International initiative where member churches come together to advocate Christians, minority groups and asylum seekers in middle east How to answer a 5 marker: - Combine content with census data dot point - Always refer to stimulus explicitly o Look for dates, change in denomination, changed services offered 1) Intro -> Identify changes in australia’s religious landscape a. Denominational switching b. Immigration c. Secularisation 2) Explanation -> go through each change, referencing the syllabus Extra class notes: - Salvation army is a Christian denomination Examine the relationship between aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation Reconciliation: - Process which changes relationship between individuals or groups for the better - Mainly used in Australia to describe way of improving relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians - Involves acknowledgement of injustices of past and dispossession, willingness + commitment to rectify these wrongs where possible, to improve the position of Aboriginal peoples in the future Key events: 1991 -> Land rights movement Dec 10, 1992 -> Redfern speech (PM Paul Keating) May 28, 2000 -> Sorry Day Sydney Harbour Bridge walk - More than 250 000 people walked across bridge to press Federal Government to apologise Feb 13, 2008 -> Federal Government apology - PM Rudd apologised on behalf of the Parliament and Government of Australia for past injustices - Stated apology was to “Remove a stain from the soul of Australia” and “It was time for all Australians, to come together, truly reconcile and together build a truly great nation” Kanyani video notes: - Country is family for Indigenous people o They live in + amongst nature e.g. walking around in natural state, no houses (huts) and sleep under the stars on the earth o All animals living with them are family - Born from Mother Earth and supported by her o “she looks after us with meat, bush tucker as well as water” - Trained to look after ceremonies, land and each other -> main importance - Never take more than you need and don’t destroy to the level where it cannot produce again o Duty to the land and caring for it - Each person is given totem animals o Not allowed to ever kill that animal - Spirit, psyche, mental, physical are all connected with every form - Oneness + completeness of oneness for everything - Every inch of land + waterways is sacred Aboriginal Spirituality Dreaming: - Definition: The Dreaming is infinite and links the past with the present to determine the future. It encapsulates the stories of creation and life in Aboriginal culture. - The Dreaming is the central and deepest reality of the Aboriginal world. - It is the spiritual dimension of reality that has existed from the beginning and continues to be present in all aspects of life. o The Dreaming is inextricably linked with the land Characteristics and features of the Dreaming - Dreaming is experiences through songs, stories, rituals and symbols. - Dreaming establishes the lore linking the relationship between Aboriginal people, the land, and all things associated with Aboriginal life. - This is evident through: o Kinship structures of society o Rules and obligations for social behaviours o Ceremonies performed to maintain the life of the land. - Quote: “The Dreaming refers to all that is known and all that is understood. It is the way Aboriginal people explain life and how their world came to being.” – 2024 Aboriginal Art and Culture, Alice Springs Australia. Kinship: - Kinship systems define where a person fits into the community, binding people together in relationships of sharing and obligation to one another and the land. - Connection to Dreaming: o Kinship binds culture, Country, family and community together it is a way of being. o Kinship systems assign the responsibility to transmit the knowledge of the Dreaming from Elders to the younger generation - Quote: “All people with the same skin grouping as my mother’s… They have the right, the same as my mother, to watch over me, to control what I’m doing, to make sure I do the right thing. It’s an extended family thing… It’s a wonderful secure system.” – Wadjularbinna Doomadgee Gungalidda leader, Gulf of Carpentaria, 1996 Ceremonial life: - The spirituality of Aboriginal people comes from their belief and understanding of the Dreaming, and how this has been taught to them throughout generations. - Ceremonial life is an essential expression of the Dreaming, connecting individuals with their ancestors, the land, and each other. Connections between ceremonial life and the Dreaming (STAR) - Stories from the Dreaming describe Aboriginal law and lifestyle, teaching about the way of life - Totems represent the individual as they existed in the Dreaming and carry ceremonial responsibilities (the embodiment of each individual in their primordial state) - Art communicated the Dreaming and the multiple layers of meaning - Rituals form the Dreaming and is a way to relive activities of ancestor spirits Obligations to the land and people - In Aboriginal society, people do not own the land it is a part of them, and it is part of their duty to respect and look after Mother Earth - Land has significance for all First Nations people as the sacred places provide a sense of identity and connection - Relationships within kinship groups connect people to places and define their obligations to each other - The land is an important aspect of Dreaming stories, particularly those associated with the time of Creation. - Custodianship o Custodianship of the land is a sacred duty bestowed upon Aboriginal people by the Dreaming - Sacred Sites o Specific locations are considered sacred because of the physical manifestations of the Dreaming. o These sites require special care and are often the focus of rituals - Sustainability Practices o Dreaming stories often includes teachings on how to care for the land o Practices such as controlled burning and seasonal hunting aim to ensure the land remains healthy for future generations. Aboriginal people believe they are related to, and custodians of natural world - This relationship provides advantages of survival and life and also imposes responsibilities of preservation and education In the land, aboriginal people see evidence of Dreaming and creation Dreaming stories which describe ancestors or Creation are set in land and describe actual land where people live Aboriginal people believe the Dreaming ancestor became the land Aboriginal people describe themselves as being descendants of particular ancestral beings Therefore have continuous and living relationship with features of the land Inseparable from the land and so believe if they are removed from the land then they will die (spiritually not literally) Ceremonial life: - By performing ceremonies, the Dreaming and its giving power loves on through human beings and animals - Ceremonies highlight the connection to the Dreaming, the importance of land, and relationships between people - Examples: initiation ceremony, men’s law and women’s law, funeral ceremonies, celebration ceremonies Purpose of aboriginal ceremonies: Rites of passage Inform all of the new status of the individual e.g. initiations and funerals Information Transfer from elder to younger generation Changes the social custodians of history Personal Support personal friendships Support personal or group activities e.g. intertribal or totemic group trade or cultural meetings Spiritual Maintain the link and connect people with the spiritual world or the Dreaming Types of aboriginal ceremonies: Ceremony Description Initiation ceremony Teaches young people bout the law and the spiritual beliefs Allows them to take their place as an elder in the community Men’s law and women’s law Each tribe has gender-specific roles and ceremonies Respect for individuals and the whole family is shown by accepting men’s and women’s law Funeral ceremonies Rite of passage from the living world to the spirit world Activities can include sprinkling of water, smoking of (bark) coffin, flowers, memory celebration Restriction of naming deceased person Celebration ceremonies Celebrate the telling of a Dreaming story Dancing and artwork happy and joyous The cause of continuation of life itself Ceremonies have changed over recent time bc of the impact of external religious beliefs (mainly Christian) and other social factors which have removed young people from their land and tribal support In some cases aboriginal spiritual beliefs have combined with Christianity in a form of syncretism (syncretism = combing of; coming together of …) Removal from land, kinship, and community has meant important ceremonial connections are becoming less effective Corroboree indicates a ceremony driven by settlers’ vernacular however they took that from one of the aboriginal torres strait islander peoples words for rituals which is ?keraberre? These ceremonies often centre on retelling of Dreaming stories -> singing, dancing, music and mime -> often body of actor is decorated to represent a spirit he/she is portraying Activities for rite of passage -> testing of strength, revelation of knowledge, the removal of the child from the biological mother, seclusion (learn to live of the land), giving of new name/sacred object Burial ceremonies -> death is time where spirit leaves body and returns to ancestor spirits -> certain ceremonies are used to encourage spirit on its journey

Know the relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the molecular weight Small weight-fast diffusion; heavy weight-slow diffusion Identify RBC’s in various solution and determine tonicity Tonicity - the ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, there will be a net flow of water out of the cell, and the cell will lose volume (shrink). A solution will be hypertonic to a cell if its solute concentration is higher than that inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, there will be a net flow of water into the cell, the cell will gain volume (bigger). If the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, then solutes cannot cross the membrane, then the solution is hypotonic to the cell. If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be no set flow of water into or out of the cell, and the cell’s volume will remain stable. If the solute concentration outside the cell is the same as inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane, the solution is isotonic to the cell. Homeostatic feedback loop for respiratory rate, heart rate and temperature Respiratory Rate: Stimulus : The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood increases (often due to exercise or hypoventilation) . Receptors: Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, carotid arteries, and aortic arch detect changes in blood pH and CO2 levels Control Center: The medulla oblongata processes this information Effectors: Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal) adjust breathing rate and depth Response: Increased respiratory rate removes CO2 and increases O2 intake, restoring normal pH and gas levels. Heart Rate: Stimulus : Changes in blood pressure, O2, CO2, or pH levels Receptors: Baroreceptors (detect blood pressure changes) in the carotid sinus and aortic arch; chemoreceptors monitor blood chemistry Control Center: The medulla oblongata (cardiac center) processes signals Effectors : The autonomic nervous system (ANS) adjusts heart rate through the sympathetic nervous system (increases heart rate) or parasympathetic nervous system (decreases heart rate) Response : Heart rate increases during low O2 or low blood pressure (to circulate oxygen) and decreases when homeostasis is restored. Temperature Regulation Stimulus: Changes in body temperature (hyperthermia or hypothermia) Receptors: Thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect temperature fluctuations. Control Center: The hypothalamus processes this information and signals effectors Effectors and Responses: If too hot: Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) to release heat, and sweat glands produce sweat for cooling If too cold: Blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) to retain heat, and shivering generates warmth. Steps of a generic homeostatic feedback loop Stimulus : A change in the internal or external environment that disrupts homeostasis (eg. temperature change, pH levels, blood sugar levels) Sensor (Receptor) : Specialized cells or receptors detect the change and send information to the control center. Control Center (Integrator): Often the brain or endocrine glands, this component processes the information from the sensors and determines the appropriate response to restore balance. Effector: This component carries out the response to the stimulus as dictated by the control center. Effectors can be muscles or glands that help to counteract the change. Response: The action taken by the effectors to restore homeostasis. This could involve increasing or decreasing a physiological process (e.g. sweating to cool down or shivering to warm up) Feedback: The results of the response are monitored. If homeostasis is restored, the system maintains its state; if not, the loop may repeat, continuing to adjust until balance is achieved. How to evaluate data to determine the set point, error, and disturbance Identify the set point The set point is the optimal level or range that the system aims to maintain. To determine the set point: Gather baseline data: Collect data over a period to understand the normal range for the variable in question (e.g. body temp., BP, blood glucose levels) Analyze Trends: Look for patterns in the data to identify the average or median value that represents the stable condition of the system. Consult Literature: Reference established physiological norms or previous studies to confirm the typical set point for the variable. Assess Disturbance A disturbance is any factor or event that causes a deviation from the set point. To evaluate disturbances: Identify External and Internal Factors: Analyze the data for any external influences (e.g. environmental changes, dietary habits) or internal changes (e.g. illness, stress) that might have impacted the variable. Quantity Disturbance: Measure the magnitude and duration of the disturbance. This can be done by comparing the data points during the disturbance against the established set point. Monitor Changes: Track how the system responds to disturbances over time to assess their impact on maintaining homeostasis. WBC types and normal distribution values/ abnormal values and what those values indicate (infections/diseases) (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas) Neutrophils (50-70%) - First responders to infections, especially bacterial. High levels indicate bacterial infections, inflammation, or stress. Low levels can indicate bone marrow disorders or severe infections. Lymphocytes (20-40%) - Include B cells and T cells, important for immunity. High levels can suggest viral infections or leukemia, while low levels might indicate immune deficiency. Monocytes (2-8%) - Help with cleaning up dead cells and fighting infections. High levels can be linked to chronic infections or autoimmune diseases. Eosinophils (1-4%) - Involved in allergic reactions and fighting parasites. Elevated levels may indicate allergies or parasitic infections. Basophils (0.5-1%) - Release histamine during allergic reactions. High levels might be see in allergic conditions or blood disorders. Normal WBC Count Total WBC Count: 4000-11000 cells per microliter of blood (varies slightly by lab) Leukocytosis (High WBC): Can indicate infection, inflammation, stress, or leukemia Leukopenia (Low WBC): Can result from bone marrow disorders, viral infections, or autoimmune diseases Neutrophils: Banded vs Segmented Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells and play a crucial role in fighting infections. They exist in different stages of maturation: Banded Neutrophils (“Bands”) - Immature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a curved, unsegmented nucleus (band-shaped) Normal Range: 0-6% of total WBC count (~0-700/uL) Clinical Significance: Increased Bands (Bandemia) -> Indicates an acute bacterial infection or severe stress (e.g. sepsis). The bone marrow releases immature neutrophils in response to infection. Low Bands -> Not clinically significant unless the total WBC count is low, which could suggest bone marrow suppression. Segmented Neutrophils (“Segs”) - Mature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a segmented nucleus with 2-5 lobes Normal Range: 50-70% of total WBC count (~2500-7000/uL) Clinical Significance: High Segs (Neutrophilia) -> Suggests bacterial infections, stress, chronic inflammation, or leukemia Low Segs (Neutropenia) ->Can be caused by viral infections, bone marrow disorders, chemotherapy, or autoimmune diseases. Discuss the stages of cell cycle/mitosis-which stages are longest/shortest The cell cycle is a series of events that cells go through to grow and divide. It consists of two main phases: Interphase (Longest Phase) – Preparation for division Mitosis (Shortest Phase) – Actual cell division Stages of the Cell Cycle Interphase (90% of the Cell Cycle – Longest Phase) Interphase is the period of cell growth and DNA replication. It has three subphases: G1 Phase (Gap 1) The cell grows, produces proteins, and prepares for DNA replication. Longest variable phase; some cells may stay here indefinitely (e.g., neurons in G0 phase). S Phase (Synthesis) DNA replication occurs, ensuring each daughter cell gets a complete genome. Takes about 6-8 hours in human cells. G2 Phase (Gap 2) The cell prepares for mitosis by producing proteins and organelles. Shorter than G1 but still significant in length. Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Know proportional and inversely proportional relationships Direct (Proportional) Relationship When two quantities increase or decrease together at a constant rate, they are directly proportional. Inversely Proportional When one variable increases, the other decreases proportionally. Know relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion of a substance is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Lighter molecules diffuse faster Heavier molecules diffuse slower due to greater mass. Know relationship between filtration rate and pressure of fluid or weight of fluid Filtration rate is directly proportional to the pressure or weight of the fluid driving the filtration process. Higher pressure → Higher filtration rate Lower pressure → Lower filtration rate Know why men and women blood values are different The differences in blood values between men and women are due to biological, hormonal, and physiological factors

2.8 - plans to remove the jews