the indian removal act and trail of teara

PSY389 Lecture 6/7 - Recovering from Alcohol and Other Drug Dependencies

Remote Sensing: Digital Image Classification and Land Cover Change Detection

PSYCHOLOGY TEST #1 — COMPLETE STUDY NOTES Test Format (40 Marks) Part A: Fill in the Blank — 10 marks (Knowledge) Part B: Identification — 10 marks (Inquiry) Part C: Short Answer — 10 marks (Communication) Part D: Theory Application — 10 marks (Application) 1. THE PHYSICAL HUMAN BRAIN Frontal Lobe Functions: Controls higher thinking skills, decision-making, problem-solving, planning, attention, intelligence, personality, emotions and voluntary movements. Associated disorders: ADHD, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Damage can cause: Paralysis, mood changes, personality changes, difficulty speaking, loss of spontaneity and unusual social behaviour. Remember: Frontal = Thinking and personality. Parietal Lobe Functions: Processes sensory information, especially touch. Helps with spatial awareness, balance, recognizing objects and understanding surroundings. Associated disorders: Alzheimer's disease, ADHD and schizophrenia. Damage can cause: Sensory difficulties, disorientation, poor coordination and difficulty recognizing or locating objects and body parts. Remember: Parietal = Touch and surroundings. Occipital Lobe Functions: Processes visual information, including colours, shapes, movement and objects. Responsible for vision. Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism and depression. Damage can cause: Blindness, visual hallucinations and difficulty seeing colours or movement. Remember: Occipital = Vision and seeing. Temporal Lobe Functions: Responsible for hearing, recognizing faces and objects, understanding language, learning, memory and emotions. Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and autism. Damage can cause: Memory loss, speech difficulties, difficulty understanding language, difficulty recognizing faces and objects, and changes in behaviour. Remember: Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum Functions: Controls balance, posture, coordination, voluntary movements, reflexes, motor skills and timing. Associated disorders: Autism, schizophrenia and dyslexia. Damage can cause: Poor coordination, tremors, dizziness, difficulty walking and slurred speech. Remember: Cerebellum = Balance and coordination. Brain Stem Functions: Controls automatic body functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and digestion. Also helps regulate sleep, alertness and balance. Associated disorders: Autism and sleep disorders such as insomnia. Damage can cause: Organ problems, sleep difficulties, balance problems and serious problems with automatic body functions. Remember: Brain Stem = Keeps you alive. Quick Memorization: Frontal = Thinking. Parietal = Touch. Occipital = Vision. Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum = Balance. Brain Stem = Automatic functions. 2. SIGMUND FREUD Who was Sigmund Freud? Austrian neurologist and psychologist. Founder of psychoanalysis. Believed the unconscious mind strongly influences human behaviour. Believed childhood experiences help shape personality. Freud's 7 Main Theories 1. Psychoanalysis A method of studying and understanding the unconscious mind. Freud believed hidden thoughts, feelings and childhood experiences influence behaviour. Used therapy to help people understand their unconscious thoughts. Example: Someone may have a fear without understanding where it originally came from. 2. Three-Part Psyche Freud believed personality was made up of three parts: the Id, Ego and Superego. Id Represents biological wants and desires. Follows the pleasure principle. Wants immediate satisfaction without thinking about consequences. Example: Eating all the cookies because you want them. Remember: Id = Wants. Ego Balances the Id and Superego. Follows the reality principle. Makes realistic decisions and considers consequences. Example: Deciding to eat one cookie instead of all of them. Remember: Ego = Reality. Superego Represents your conscience. Tells you what is right and wrong. Develops through experiences, rules and values. Example: Knowing you shouldn't take someone else's cookies. Remember: Superego = Morals. 3. Oedipus Complex Freud believed young children experience unconscious feelings of attachment toward the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry toward the same-sex parent. Named after the Greek character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Remember: Opposite-sex parent = Attachment; same-sex parent = Rivalry. 4. Sexual Desires (Libido) Freud believed sexual energy, called libido, influences human personality and behaviour. He believed frustration of desires could affect mental health. The term Freudian slip comes from his ideas about unconscious thoughts accidentally appearing in speech. Example: Accidentally saying what you were actually thinking instead of what you meant to say. 5. Examination of Dreams Freud believed dreams were a window into the unconscious mind. He thought dreams revealed hidden thoughts, feelings and desires. Example: A dream might represent a hidden fear or worry. 6. Stages of Development Freud believed personality develops through five stages. Each stage focuses on a different area of pleasure. Oral Stage (0–18 months): Pleasure comes from the mouth, such as sucking and feeding. Anal Stage (18 months–3 years): Focuses on toilet training and control. Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focuses on the body and awareness of gender differences. Latency Stage (6–puberty): Sexual urges are less noticeable. Children focus more on friendships, school and learning. Genital Stage (puberty–adulthood): Focuses on mature relationships and sexual interests. Remember the order: Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital. 7. Defence Mechanisms Freud believed the mind uses defence mechanisms to protect itself from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings. They happen unconsciously. Important examples: Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Example: Saying you didn't fail a test when you did. Repression: Pushing upsetting memories out of awareness. Projection: Blaming others for your own feelings. Example: Calling someone jealous when you are jealous. Displacement: Taking your feelings out on someone else. Example: Being upset at school and snapping at a family member. Rationalization: Making excuses for behaviour. Example: Saying a test was unfair because you didn't study. How Freud Applies to Psychology Helps explain how the unconscious mind influences behaviour. Helps explain how childhood experiences affect personality. Studies how dreams and hidden feelings may affect people. Explains how defence mechanisms protect people from uncomfortable emotions. Influenced the development of psychotherapy and talk therapy. 3. CONDITIONING Conditioning is a type of learning where behaviour changes through experiences and associations. There are two main types: Classical and Operant Conditioning. A. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Happens when someone connects two stimuli. A person learns to associate something with a natural response. The response eventually becomes automatic. Example: Pavlov's Dogs Pavlov rang a bell before giving dogs food. Food naturally caused the dogs to salivate. Eventually, the dogs started salivating just from hearing the bell. Four Important Terms: US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Something that naturally causes a reaction. UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural reaction to the stimulus. CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Something originally neutral that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. CR (Conditioned Response): The learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus. Example from your notes: Toilet and Shower Every time someone flushes a toilet, the shower becomes very hot. Eventually, the person jumps back just from hearing the toilet flush. US: Hot water. UR: Jumping back. CS: Toilet flushing. CR: Jumping back when hearing the toilet flush. Remember: Classical = Association. B. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Behaviour changes depending on its consequences. People learn which behaviours lead to positive or negative outcomes. Usually involves voluntary behaviours. Four Types of Operant Conditioning: 1. Positive Reinforcement Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour. Example: Getting a reward for good grades. 2. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour. Example: Homework stops once you finish your chores. 3. Positive Punishment Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour. Example: Getting extra chores for breaking a rule. 4. Negative Punishment Removing something pleasant to decrease a behaviour. Example: Losing phone privileges for breaking a rule. Important to Remember: Positive = Adding something. Negative = Removing something. Reinforcement = Increases behaviour. Punishment = Decreases behaviour. Positive does NOT mean good, and negative does NOT mean bad. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical = Learning through association. Operant = Learning through consequences. Classical = Usually automatic responses. Operant = Usually voluntary behaviours. Classical example = Pavlov's dogs. Operant example = Getting rewarded for good grades. 4. COGNITIVE BIAS What is Cognitive Bias? The way we personally see and interpret the world. Everyone processes information differently. Our perceptions can influence our behaviour and decisions. Many biases happen unconsciously, without us realizing. Example: Two people experience the same situation but remember and interpret it differently. Confirmation Bias The tendency to look for and remember information that supports what you already believe. People often ignore information that goes against their beliefs. Example: You believe someone is rude, so you only notice when they act rude and ignore when they are nice. Tests That Measure Cognitive Bias 1. Rorschach Inkblot Test People look at inkblots and explain what they see. Their interpretations are recorded and analyzed. Remember: Inkblots = What do you see? 2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) People look at a series of pictures and create stories about them. The stories are analyzed to understand their thoughts and feelings. Remember: Pictures = Tell a story. 3. Word Association Test People are given words and respond with the first word that comes to mind. Responses can be analyzed to explore subconscious thoughts. Remember: Words = First thing that comes to mind. 4. Graphology The study of handwriting and how it may relate to personality traits. Remember: Graphology = Handwriting. 5. ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES Ethics are rules that protect people who participate in psychological research. Five Ethical Principles 1. Minimizing Harm - Participants should not experience unnecessary physical or emotional harm. 2. Informed Consent - Participants must understand the study and agree to participate. 3. Confidentiality and Anonymity - Personal information and identities must be protected. 4. Avoiding Deception - Researchers should not mislead participants unnecessarily. 5. Right to Withdraw - Participants can leave the study at any time without being forced to stay. Remember: Harm, Consent, Privacy, Honesty, Withdraw. Controversial Experiments 1. Milgram Obedience Study (1963) Researcher: Stanley Milgram. Purpose: To investigate how far people would obey authority, even when it went against their conscience. What happened? Participants were told they were taking part in a learning experiment. They were assigned the role of the teacher. They were instructed to give increasing electric shocks to a learner for incorrect answers. The learner was actually an actor, and the shocks were fake. Many participants continued because an authority figure told them to. Main takeaway: - People may obey authority even when they believe their actions are wrong. Ethical issues: - Deception and psychological stress. 2. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) Researcher: Philip Zimbardo. Purpose: To investigate how people behave when placed in positions of power or powerless situations. What happened? Participants were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards. The experiment was designed to imitate a prison. Some guards began treating prisoners unfairly. The experiment became harmful and was stopped early. Main takeaway: - Situations and social roles can influence human behaviour. Ethical issues: - Psychological harm, lack of protection and insufficient oversight. Difference Between the Two Experiments Milgram = Obedience to authority. Stanford = Power and social roles. Milgram = Stanley Milgram, 1963. Stanford = Philip Zimbardo, 1971. 6. ALFRED ADLER AND CARL JUNG Both were psychologists who studied personality. They were originally influenced by Freud but disagreed with some of his ideas. A. Alfred Adler Who Was Alfred Adler? Austrian psychologist born in 1870. Founder of Individual Psychology. Believed people are motivated by the desire to improve themselves and overcome feelings of inferiority. 1. Inferiority Complex Adler believed people naturally experience feelings of inferiority or not being good enough. People try to overcome these feelings through self-improvement and achievement. Example: Someone who struggles in school works harder to improve their grades. 2. Compensation Trying to overcome a weakness by improving another area of life. Example: Someone who struggles with sports focuses on becoming better at music. 3. Napoleon Complex Describes someone who overcompensates because they feel inferior due to a perceived disadvantage. Often associated with people who are shorter in height. Example: Someone acts overly aggressive to prove themselves. 4. Fictional Finalism (Fictional Story) Adler believed people create an idea or goal about who they want to become at a young age. This imagined goal influences their decisions and behaviour throughout life. Example: A child believes they will become a doctor and makes decisions based on that goal. 5. Birth Order Adler believed birth order could influence personality and behaviour. Being the oldest, middle or youngest child may affect how someone develops. 6. Three Major Life Tasks Occupational Tasks: Career, education and work. Societal Tasks: Friendships and social connections. Love Tasks: Relationships, marriage and family. Remember: Work, Friends, Love. B. Carl Jung Who Was Carl Jung? Swiss psychologist born in 1875. Originally influenced by Freud. Agreed that the unconscious mind influences behaviour. Disagreed with Freud's strong focus on sexuality. Often included spirituality and the soul in his psychological theories. 1. Collective Unconscious Jung believed all humans share a deeper unconscious mind. It contains universal symbols and patterns passed down through generations. These universal patterns are called archetypes. Example: Different cultures have similar ideas about heroes, mothers and villains. 2. Introvert vs. Extrovert - Jung developed a personality theory based on where people direct their mental energy. Introverts: Focus their energy inward toward themselves. Prefer reflecting on their own thoughts and feelings. Draw energy from their inner world. Extroverts: Focus their energy outward toward people and their surroundings. Direct their attention toward the outside world. Important: Introvert does not automatically mean shy, and extrovert does not simply mean outgoing. 3. Psychological Balance Jung believed people need balance between opposite personality traits. Understanding different sides of your personality helps with personal development and mental health. Difference Between Freud, Adler and Jung Freud = Unconscious mind, childhood experiences and sexual energy. Adler = Inferiority, compensation and self-improvement. Jung = Collective unconscious, archetypes and introversion/extroversion. MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO MEMORIZE If you are short on time, make sure you know these: Brain Parts Frontal = Thinking. Parietal = Touch. Occipital = Vision. Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum = Balance. Brain Stem = Automatic functions. Freud Id = Wants. Ego = Reality. Superego = Morals. Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital. Defence mechanisms = Protect the mind from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings. Conditioning Classical = Association. Operant = Consequences. Positive = Add. Negative = Remove. Reinforcement = Increase behaviour. Punishment = Decrease behaviour. Cognitive Bias Confirmation bias = Looking for information that supports your beliefs. Rorschach = Inkblots. TAT = Pictures and stories. Word Association = Words. Graphology = Handwriting. Ethics Minimizing harm. Informed consent. Confidentiality and anonymity. Avoiding deception. Right to withdraw. Experiments Milgram = Obedience to authority. Stanford = Power and social roles. Adler Inferiority complex = Feeling inferior. Compensation = Overcoming weaknesses. Fictional finalism = Goals that guide behaviour. Three tasks = Occupational, societal and love. Jung Collective unconscious = Shared unconscious patterns. Archetypes = Universal symbols and characters. Introvert = Focuses inward. Extrovert = Focuses outward.

Protesis fija y removible P1

RPIC duties; VLOS; registration; Remote ID; night operations; operations over people; accident reporting; waivers; drugs/alcohol

#2 sebaceous cyst removal - on sterile field or to the side

Oclusión, Prótesis Total y Prótesis Parcial Removible

Role of Disturbance: Periodic disturbances such as fire and mowing can reset ecological succession, but timing is crucial to avoid harming vulnerable life stages. Grassland Ecosystems & Butterfly Conservation Key Drivers of Grassland Decline: Land conversion for intensive row-crop agriculture, urban development, fire suppression, overgrazing, and invasive plant encroachment. Timing is critical: unmanaged disturbances during larval or pupal stages can cause high direct mortality. Butterfly Conservation Concepts: (Amphibian Chytrid Fungus): Waterborne zoospores fungus causing chytridiomycosis in amphibians, disrupting cutaneous electrolyte transport and causing cardiac arrest. Umbrella Species: Species whose broad habitat requirement and spatial area encompass the requirements of many co-occurring species; protecting them indirectly protects the broader community. 3 Main Drivers of Butterfly Declines in the U.S.: Habitat loss and fragmentation, pesticide exposure (neonicotinoids/insecticides), and climate change/phenological mismatch with host plants. Chapter 8: Extinction IUCN Red List & Extinction Metrics IUCN Red List: A standardized framework for assessing species extinction risk based on criteria like population reduction and geographic range. Categories of Extinction: Ranges from Extinct (EX) to Least Concern (LC), providing a comprehensive overview of species status. Extinct (EX) Extinct in the Wild (EW) Critically Endangered (CR) Endangered (EN) Vulnerable (VU) Near Threatened (NT) Least Concern (LC) Data Deficient (DD) Contemporary vs. Background Rates: Current extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than historical background rates, indicating a biodiversity crisis. Background Rate: ~0.1 to 1 E/MSY (extinctions per million species-years) based on fossil record averages. Contemporary Rate: Estimated at 100 to 1000x higher than background rates over the last 500 years. Sixth Mass Extinction: Current species loss is unprecedented and primarily driven by human activities, contrasting with past extinction events caused by natural disasters. Extinction Terminology: Globally Extinct: No living individuals exist anywhere on Earth. Extinct in the Wild: Survives only in captivity, cultivation, or managed ex-situ populations. Ecologically / Functionally Extinct: Persists in such low numbers that its interactions no longer significantly influence ecosystem structure or function. Extirpation (Local Extinction): Species is eliminated from a specific geographic region but survives elsewhere. Defaunation: Global downscaling of animal numbers and species diversity within local ecosystems. Population Decay: Progressive loss of localized populations across a species' historical range prior to species level extinction. Mass Mortality Event: Rapid, catastrophic die-off of a large percentage of individuals within a population over a brief timeframe. Extinction Debt: Future expected extinctions resulting from past habitat destruction or degradation that have not yet fully played out demographically. Allee Effects: Positive density dependence where individual fitness or per-capita population growth rate declines at low population densities (e.g., failure to find mates, breakdown of group defense). Ranked Proximate Drivers (Most to Least Threatening Global Impact) Demographic & Life History Risk Factors Ecological & Spatial Risk Factors 1. Habitat Loss & Degradation Low intrinsic rate of population growth (r) High endemicity / narrow geographic range 2. Overexploitation High variability in demographic rates Highly isolated populations 3. Invasive Alien Species Large body size / high trophic position Specialized dietary or microhabitat requirements 4. Climate Change Long generation time / late maturation age Reliance on predictable disturbance regimes Chapter 9a: Habitat Loss Land-Use Transitions & Driver Hierarchy Sequence of Land-Use Transitions: The progression from wildlands to urbanization illustrates the increasing human impact on ecosystems. Main Drivers of Habitat Loss: Agricultural expansion (cropland and livestock pasture) Industrial forestry / timber harvest Urbanization and infrastructure development Aquaculture development (e.g., mangrove clearance for shrimp farming) Vulnerable Ecosystems: Most Historical Loss: Tropical dry forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean forests, temperate broadleaf forests. Projected Future Losses: Tropical rainforests, tropical savanna ecosystems, peatlands. Forest Change Patterns: Temperate Forests: Globally stabilizing or re-expanding (forest transition hypothesis), but often replaced by low diversity monoculture tree plantations. Tropical Forests: Experiencing rapid deforesting driven by commodity expansion (palm oil, cattle, soybeans, timber extraction). Boreal Forests: Impacted by large-scale logging, industrial extraction (oil/gas), and accelerating climate-driven fires and insect outbreaks. Pacific Northwest (PNW) Forest Ownership: Federal / State Public Lands: Managed under policies prioritizing ecosystem restoration, old-growth protection, and biodiversity conservation (e.g., Northwest Forest Plan). Private Industrial Lands: Managed primarily for short-rotation timber production, leading to younger stand structures and dense road networks. Chapter 9b: Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation Degradation Mechanisms Primary Forms of Pollution: Nutrient Pollution (Nitrogen & Phosphorus): Agricultural runoff and wastewater leading to eutrophication, rapid algal blooms, and hypoxic dead zones ( <2 mg O2/L). Toxic Chemical Contaminants: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals (e.g., mercury) undergo biomagnification, increasing in concentration up trophic levels. Plastic & Debris Pollution: Mechanical ingestion, entanglement, and chemical leaching in marine and freshwater systems. Desertification: Degradation of dryland ecosystems driven by overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable farming combined with drought. Regime Shifts & Tipping Points: Loss of vegetative cover destabilizes topsoil, reduces moisture retention, and creates a self-reinforcing feedback loop that shifts fertile drylands to desert. Prevention Techniques: Terracing, rotational grazing, agroforestry, windbreaks, and soil moisture preservation. Fragmentation & Landscape Mosaics A continuous forest changes into a fragmented forest with gaps, which then divides into separate smaller areas. This leads to edge effects, which are changes that occur at the boundary between the forest and non-forest areas. As a result, there can be shifts in the local climate (microclimate) and some species may become isolated from each other. Fragmentation Effects: Subdivides continuous habitat into smaller patches, reduces core area, and increases edge proportion. Effects on Population Growth & Size: Reduces total core area, creates small subdivided populations, elevates mortality along fragment borders, and limits gene flow. Edge Effects: Abiotic (temperature swings, wind shear, lower moisture) and biotic alterations (higher predation rate, invasive weed establishment) occurring along fragment borders. Metapopulation Concept: A network of spatially isolated local populations ("patches") linked by occasional dispersal. Levins Model: dp/dt= cp(1-p)-ep where P is patch occupancy, C is colonization rate, and E is extinction rate. Source-Sink Dynamics & Ecological Traps: Source Populations: High-quality patches where reproduction exceeds mortality ( r>0), producing emigrants. Sink Populations: Low-quality patches where mortality exceeds reproduction (r<0 ), sustained only by immigration (Demographic Rescue Effect). Ecological Trap: Degraded habitat that provides false environmental cues, attracting organisms to select poor-quality habitat where fitness is reduced Chapter 10: Overexploitation Population Models & Harvesting Theory Logistic Growth Model: dN/dt=rN(1-N/K) Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY):The peak harvest rate achievable without long-term depletion, mathematically occurring at N= K/2 where population growth rate is maximized (MSY=rK/4 ). Fixed-Quota vs. Fixed-Effort Harvesting: Fixed-Quota (Q ): Removing a constant number of individuals. Highly risky; if stochastic events depress population below N^MSY , quota exceeds growth, driving rapid collapse. Fixed-Effort (E ): Regulating harvesting effort ( EN). Yield scales dynamically with population size, providing stability against collapse. Exploitation Types: Types: Commercial (profit-driven, open-access risks), subsistence (local survival), and recreational (leisure, can fund conservation via game ranches). Global Fisheries Trends: Wild marine capture landings plateaued in the 1990s while aquaculture production expanded rapidly; overfished stock percentages are rising globally. Bycatch & Trophic Downgrading: Unintentional capture of non-target species (sharks, rays, seabirds) and removal of large apex predators, altering marine food webs. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Regulates international wildlife trade across Appendix I (prohibited/threatened with extinction, e.g., rhinos), Appendix II (strictly controlled, e.g., orchids), and Appendix III (national protection assistance). Chapter 11: Invasive Species Terminology & The Invasion Process Native vs. Non-native Species: Native species exist within their historical range, while non-native species are introduced outside their natural distribution due to human activities. Invasive Alien Species (IAS): Non-native species that establish and spread, causing ecological or economic harm, often outcompeting native species. Invasion Phases: Introduction ---> Establishment (surviving environmental and biotic filters via propagule pressure) ---> spread ( Lag phase ---> Expansion Phase ----> saturation phase) Lag Phase & Expansion Phase: Initial low growth during the lag phase followed by exponential growth in the expansion phase as species adapt to local conditions. Propagule Pressure: Refers to the quantity and quality of introduced individuals, a key predictor of establishment success for invasive species. Establishment Hypotheses: Empty Niche, Novel Weapons (allelopathy), Enemy Release, and Novel Environments. Impacts & Management: Biotic homogenization (B -diversity decline), structural disruption (e.g., Brown Tree Snake in Guam, Zebra Mussels), and management prioritizing early prevention and rapid eradication. Chapter 12a: Climate Change Physical Basis & Projections IPCC Framework: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change synthesizes climate data using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) to project future climate scenarios. Abiotic Trends: Key trends include rising global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, ocean acidification, thermal expansion, and melting ice sheets, all contributing to sea-level rise. Aerosol Cooling: Industrial aerosol emissions scatter solar radiation, temporarily masking the warming effects of greenhouse gases, complicating climate change mitigation efforts. Climate Feedback Loops: Positive feedback loops, such as melting ice reducing albedo, exacerbate warming, while negative feedbacks can stabilize certain systems. Mitigation Strategies: Emphasizes the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy, conservation, and sustainable practices to combat climate change. Global Climate Agreements: Discusses international efforts like the Paris Agreement aimed at limiting global temperature rise and promoting sustainable development. Drivers & Projections: Rising greenhouse gases, aerosol masking, ocean acidification, sea-level rise, and regional PNW shifts (warmer/wetter winters, hotter/drier summers, reduced snowpack). Ecological Impacts: Poleward/elevational geographic range shifts and phenological mismatches decoupling trophic synchrony. Species Distribution Models (SDMs): Algorithms correlating species presence with environmental layers to project future potential ranges. Climate Vulnerability & Conservation Strategies Climate Vulnerability = f(Exposure, Sensitivity, Adaptive Capacity) Climate Refugia: Geographically buffered microenvironments ("slow lanes") providing short-term climate stability. Migration Pathways: Corridors (e.g., Yellowstone to Yukon) linking protected areas to facilitate natural range tracking. Assisted Colonization (Managed Relocation): Deliberately moving species (e.g., Western swamp turtle) to newly suitable habitats when natural dispersal cannot outpace climate velocity. Building Evolutionary Resilience: Maximizing population sizes, preserving genetic diversity, and conducting gene translocations. Agricultural Expansion Agricultural practices, including cropland and livestock pasture, are primary drivers of habitat loss, leading to significant ecosystem degradation. The conversion of forests and grasslands into agricultural land reduces biodiversity and disrupts local ecosystems. Case Study: The Amazon rainforest has seen extensive deforestation for soybean and cattle ranching, impacting global carbon cycles. Industrial Forestry and Urbanization Industrial forestry practices often prioritize monoculture plantations, which lack biodiversity and resilience. Urbanization leads to habitat fragmentation, reducing the core area of habitats and increasing edge effects. Example: Urban sprawl in the Pacific Northwest has led to the loss of temperate forests, impacting local wildlife. Aquaculture Aquaculture expansion can lead to habitat destruction, particularly in coastal areas where mangroves are cleared for shrimp farming. The environmental impact includes water pollution and disruption of local fisheries. Example: The decline of mangrove forests in Southeast Asia due to shrimp farming has led to increased coastal erosion and loss of biodiversity. Vulnerable Ecosystems and Forest Change Patterns Vulnerable Ecosystems Tropical dry forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean forests, and mangroves are among the most affected ecosystems historically. Tropical rainforests and savannas are projected to face significant future losses due to climate change and human activities. Historical Context: The Mediterranean region has seen a dramatic decline in forest cover due to agriculture and urbanization. Forest Change Patterns Temperate forests are stabilizing or re-expanding regionally but are often replaced by low-diversity monoculture plantations. Tropical forests are experiencing rapid deforestation driven by commodity expansion, particularly palm oil and cattle ranching. Boreal forests are impacted by logging, industrial extraction, and climate-driven fires, leading to significant ecological changes. Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation Degradation Mechanisms Pollution and biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals pose severe threats to top predators in ecosystems. Nutrient pollution leads to eutrophication, causing algal blooms and hypoxic conditions in coastal areas, creating 'dead zones'. Example: The Gulf of Mexico experiences seasonal dead zones due to nutrient runoff from agriculture, impacting marine life. Fragmentation Effects Habitat fragmentation subdivides continuous habitats into smaller patches, reducing core area and increasing edge habitat. Edge effects alter microclimates, increasing susceptibility to drought, fire, and invasive species. Global Fragmentation Experiments (e.g., BDFFP in Brazil) show that fragmentation negatively impacts ecosystem functions. Overexploitation and Sustainable Harvest Sustainable Harvest Theory The Logistic Growth Model describes population dynamics and sustainable harvesting levels, emphasizing the importance of carrying capacity (K). Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) is the peak harvest rate achievable without long-term depletion, mathematically occurring at half the carrying capacity (N = K/2). Fixed-Quota vs. Fixed-Effort Harvesting: Fixed-quota is risky as it can lead to population collapse, while fixed-effort adjusts yield based on population size. Exploitation Contexts Types of exploitation include commercial, subsistence, and recreational, each with different ecological impacts and regulatory needs. Global fisheries trends indicate a plateau in wild marine capture while aquaculture production expands, raising concerns about overfishing. Bycatch and trophic downgrading disrupt marine food webs, leading to ecological imbalances. Invasive Species and Climate Change Invasion Process and Management Definitions: Native vs. non-native vs. invasive alien species (IAS) that cause ecological harm. Invasion stages include introduction, establishment, and spread, with various hypotheses explaining establishment success. Management strategies prioritize early prevention and rapid eradication to mitigate impacts of invasive species. Climate Change Impacts Rising greenhouse gases and climate change lead to shifts in species distributions and phenological mismatches, disrupting ecological interactions. Climate vulnerability is assessed based on exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, guiding conservation strategies. Assisted colonization may be necessary for species unable to migrate fast enough due to climate velocity.

Remote Sensing Mid-term 2

Storage Devices Lesson 004: Removable Storage

remote sensing midterm 2

Hair Removal Final

Wax Removal

Remote Sensing (Exam 2)

Environmental Remote Sensing: Fundamentals, Radiation, Spectral Signatures, and Image Processing

4. Remote Care & Advanced Innovations + Data Systems & Information Sharing

BTEC Level 3 Applied Science – COMPLETE Biology Revision Pack This is your main revision guide based on all the B1, B2 and B3 notes you shared and everything we’ve been practising. It includes: * All the main topics you need to revise. * Definitions and key scientific terms. * Cell structures and their functions. * Specialised cells and immunity. * Tissues, lungs and circulation. * Muscles and the nervous system. * ECGs. * 6-mark practice questions. * Mnemonics with every letter explained. * Exam-ready answers. Important: Nobody can guarantee the exact questions that will come up. This covers the topics in your notes, including likely extended-answer areas. Use your official unit specification and teacher’s guidance alongside it. PART 1 – B1: CELL STRUCTURE 1. Levels of organisation Learn these definitions: Term Definition Cell Basic structural and functional unit of life. Tissue Group of similar specialised cells working together. Organ Different tissues working together to perform a function. Organ system Different organs working together. Organelle Specialised structure inside a cell. Mnemonic: Cats Take Over Sofas * Cats = Cells * Take = Tissues * Over = Organs * Sofas = Systems Order: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system. 2. Differentiation Definition: Differentiation is when an unspecialised cell develops into a specialised cell to perform a particular function. Examples: * A stem cell can become a red blood cell. * A stem cell can become a neurone. * A stem cell can become a muscle cell. 3. Prokaryotic cells Prokaryotes are cells without a nucleus. Learn these structures: Structure Function Nucleoid Contains circular DNA. Plasmids Small extra rings of DNA. 70S ribosomes Protein synthesis. Capsule Protection and attachment. Cell wall Made of peptidoglycan; provides support. Cell membrane Controls substances entering and leaving. Cytoplasm Where chemical reactions occur. Mnemonic: Naughty Pigs Rarely Chase Wolves * N = Nucleoid * P = Plasmids * R = Ribosomes * C = Capsule * W = Wall Remember: Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. 4. Eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells have: * A nucleus. * 80S ribosomes in the cytoplasm. * Membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells Structure Function Cellulose cell wall Support and protection. Chloroplasts Photosynthesis. Permanent vacuole Contains cell sap and helps maintain turgor. Tonoplast Membrane surrounding the vacuole. Amyloplasts Store starch. Plasmodesmata Connections between neighbouring plant cells. Pits Areas where the cell wall is thinner. Animal cells Animal cells can contain: * Nucleus. * Mitochondria. * Ribosomes. * Cell membrane. * Cytoplasm. * Centrioles. * Glycogen stores. Animal cells do not have cellulose cell walls or chloroplasts. 5. Organelles and their functions Organelle Function Cell membrane Controls movement of substances. Cytoplasm Site of many chemical reactions. Nucleus Contains DNA and controls cell activities. Nucleolus Produces ribosomal components. Ribosomes Protein synthesis. Rough ER Transports and processes proteins. Smooth ER Lipid and steroid synthesis. Golgi apparatus Modifies, sorts and packages proteins. Vesicles Transport substances. Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes. Mitochondria Aerobic respiration and ATP production. Centrioles Help organise spindle fibres during cell division. Chloroplasts Photosynthesis. Identifying organelles in micrographs * Mitochondria: oval shape with folded inner membranes called cristae. * Nucleus: large structure with a double membrane and pores. * Rough ER: flattened membranes with ribosomes attached. * Chloroplast: contains stacks of membranes called grana. * Golgi: curved, flattened membrane sacs. * Bacteria: no nucleus; DNA lies free in the cytoplasm. 6. Light and electron microscopes Light microscope Electron microscope Uses light. Uses an electron beam. Lower resolution. Higher resolution. Lower magnification. Higher magnification. Can view living cells. Specimens must be dead. Can show natural colours. Original images are monochrome. Generally cheaper. Generally more expensive. Mnemonic: M R C L * M = Magnification * R = Resolution * C = Colour * L = Living specimens 7. Magnification calculations Learn these three formulas: M=\frac{I}{A}I=M\times AA=\frac{I}{M} Where: * M = Magnification * I = Image size * A = Actual size Conversions: * 1 mm = 1000 µm * 1 µm = 1000 nm Always make sure your measurements use the same units. Stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule A graticule is calibrated against a stage micrometer. Mnemonic: Lazy Chefs Dice Meat * L = Line up the scales. * C = Count the divisions. * D = Divide the known measurement by the number of divisions. * M = Measure the specimen. Recalibrate when changing magnification. PART 2 – GRAM STAINING AND ANTIBIOTICS 8. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria Gram-positive Gram-negative Thick peptidoglycan wall. Thin peptidoglycan wall. No outer membrane. Has an outer membrane. Stains purple. Stains pink/red. Generally more susceptible to penicillin. Outer membrane provides additional protection. 9. Gram staining Mnemonic: Hot Cats In Autumn Spring * Hot = Heat-fix: Fix bacteria onto a microscope slide. * Cats = Crystal violet: Add purple dye. * In = Iodine: Helps retain the crystal violet. * Autumn = Alcohol: Removes the dye from Gram-negative bacteria. * Spring = Safranin: Counterstains Gram-negative bacteria pink. * Result: Gram-positive purple, Gram-negative pink/red. 10. Penicillin Penicillin prevents the formation of cross-links in bacterial peptidoglycan. This: * Weakens the bacterial cell wall. * Allows water to enter by osmosis. * Causes the bacterial cell to burst (lysis). Gram-positive bacteria are generally more susceptible because their peptidoglycan is more accessible. Gram-negative bacteria have an outer membrane that can prevent or reduce penicillin entry. PART 3 – B2: SPECIALISED CELLS 11. Palisade cells Adaptations: * Contain many chloroplasts for photosynthesis. * Tall, thin shape allows cells to be closely packed. * Found near the upper surface of leaves to receive light. * Large vacuole pushes chloroplasts towards the cell edge. * Thin cell wall helps carbon dioxide diffuse into the cell. 12. Sperm cells Mnemonic: A Happy Mouse Tails * A = Acrosome: Contains enzymes to digest the egg’s outer layers. * H = Haploid nucleus: Contains half the normal chromosome number. * M = Mitochondria: Produce ATP for movement. * T = Tail: Flagellum propels the sperm. * S = Streamlined: Helps movement through fluid. 13. Egg cells Adaptations: * Large cytoplasm containing nutrient reserves. * Haploid nucleus. * Zona pellucida surrounds the egg. * Cortical granules help prevent polyspermy after fertilisation. Polyspermy: When more than one sperm fertilises an egg. 14. Root hair cells Adaptations: * Long extension gives a large surface area. * Thin cell wall gives a short diffusion distance. * Cell sap helps water enter by osmosis. * Mitochondria supply ATP for active transport of mineral ions. 15. Red blood cells Adaptations: * Biconcave shape gives a large surface area. * No nucleus, leaving more room for haemoglobin. * Haemoglobin binds oxygen. * Flexible shape allows movement through narrow capillaries. * Thin centre gives a short diffusion distance. Oxygen + haemoglobin ⇌ oxyhaemoglobin. 16. White blood cells Two important types: Neutrophils * Have a lobed nucleus. * Engulf pathogens by phagocytosis. * Use lysosomes containing digestive enzymes. * Form part of the innate immune response. * Respond rapidly to infection. Lymphocytes * Have a large, round nucleus. * B lymphocytes can develop into plasma cells. * Plasma cells produce specific antibodies. * Some become memory cells. * T lymphocytes can destroy infected cells. 17. Neutrophils and lymphocytes: similarities and differences Similarities mnemonic: Both Need Protection * Both = Both are white blood cells. * Need = Both contain a nucleus. * Protection = Both protect against pathogens. Differences: Neutrophils Lymphocytes Phagocytosis. Specific immune response. Lobed nucleus. Large, round nucleus. Digest pathogens using lysosomes. B cells produce antibodies. Part of innate immunity. Part of adaptive immunity. Respond rapidly. Can form long-lasting memory cells. 18. Antibodies and immunity Learn: * An antigen is a molecule recognised by the immune system. * Antibodies have binding sites complementary to specific antigens. * Antibodies bind to antigens. * This can neutralise pathogens or help other immune cells destroy them. * B lymphocytes can form memory cells. * Memory cells help produce a faster secondary response. 19. Allergies Mnemonic: A M H * A = Allergen enters the body. * M = Mast cells become involved. * H = Histamine is released. Histamine causes: * Blood vessels to widen. * Capillaries to become more permeable. * Fluid to move into tissues. * Swelling, itching and other allergic symptoms. 20. Transplant rejection Learn this sequence: * Donor cells have antigens. * The recipient recognises these antigens as foreign. * T lymphocytes recognise the foreign cells. * T cells attack the transplanted tissue. * Tissue matching reduces the chance of rejection. * Immunosuppressants reduce immune activity. PART 4 – B3: TISSUES AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 21. Epithelial tissues Squamous epithelium * Thin, flat cells. * Usually one cell thick in diffusion surfaces. * Short diffusion distance. * Found in alveoli and capillary walls. Columnar epithelium * Tall cells. * Can contain goblet cells. * Ciliated columnar cells move mucus. * Microvilli in the gut increase surface area for absorption. Endothelium * Lines the inside of blood vessels. * Smooth surface reduces friction. * Thin capillary endothelium allows diffusion. 22. COPD COPD stands for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Two important conditions: Emphysema Mnemonic: Smoking Makes Every Alveolus Lose Elasticity * Smoking causes inflammation. * White blood cells release elastase. * Elastase destroys alveolar walls. * Alveoli merge into larger air spaces. * Surface area decreases. * Elastic recoil decreases, causing difficulty breathing out. Chronic bronchitis Mnemonic: Irritated Goblets Make Coughing Increase * I = Inflammation of the bronchi. * G = Goblet cells enlarge. * M = More mucus is produced. * C = Cilia become damaged. * I = Infections become more common. * B = Bronchi narrow, causing coughing and breathing difficulties. 23. Alveoli adaptations Mnemonic: Silly Tigers Carry Very Massive Eggs * S = Surface area: Millions of alveoli create a large surface area. * T = Thin walls: One cell thick, short diffusion distance. * C = Capillaries: Dense network maintains the concentration gradient. * V = Ventilation: Refreshes alveolar air. * M = Moisture: Gases dissolve in the lining. * E = Elasticity: Allows stretching and recoil. 24. Gas exchange Oxygen moves: Alveolar air → Alveolar epithelium → Basement membrane → Capillary endothelium → Plasma → Red blood cell → Haemoglobin. Carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction. Fick’s law Diffusion is faster when: * Surface area is larger. * Diffusion distance is shorter. * Concentration gradient is steeper. 25. Breathing and inhalation Mnemonic: Dancing Rabbits Visit Pretty Amazing Places * D = Diaphragm contracts and flattens. * R = Ribs move upwards and outwards. * V = Thoracic volume increases. * P = Pressure inside lungs decreases. * A = Air moves into the lungs. * P = Pressure equalises as air enters. Exhalation * Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped. * External intercostal muscles relax. * Ribs move downwards and inwards. * Thoracic volume decreases. * Pressure inside the lungs increases. * Air moves out. 26. Smoking effects Mnemonic: Cigarettes Make Every Lung Suffer * C = Cilia damaged. * M = More mucus produced. * E = Excess infections. * L = Loss of alveolar walls. * S = Surface area reduced. * S = Smoking reduces lung elasticity. Smoking also damages blood vessel endothelium and increases atherosclerosis risk. PART 5 – ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND CIRCULATION 27. Atherosclerosis High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: Dirty Money’s Find Pipes Narrowing Today * Dirty = Damage: The endothelium lining the artery becomes damaged. * Money’s = Macrophages: Macrophages enter the artery wall and engulf LDL cholesterol. * Find = Foam cells: Macrophages become foam cells, forming fatty streaks. * Pipes = Plaque: Fatty material builds up and forms a plaque. * Narrowing = Narrowing: The plaque narrows the artery and reduces blood flow. * Today = Thrombus: A blood clot can form and block the artery, potentially causing a heart attack or stroke. Risk factors * Smoking. * High blood pressure. * High LDL cholesterol. * Diabetes. * Age. * Poor diet. PART 6 – MUSCLES 28. Skeletal muscle structure Learn these terms: Structure Function Sarcolemma Muscle fibre cell membrane. Sarcoplasm Muscle fibre cytoplasm. Myofibrils Contain actin and myosin. Sarcomere Contractile unit between Z lines. Actin Thin filament. Myosin Thick filament. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Stores and releases calcium ions. Mitochondria Produce ATP. Skeletal muscle fibres are: * Long and cylindrical. * Multinucleate. * Striated. * Packed with myofibrils. 29. Sarcomere changes Structure During contraction A band Stays the same length. I band Shortens. H zone Shortens. Z lines Move closer together. Sarcomere Shortens. Mnemonic: A stays Always the same; I and H get Hit. 30. Sliding filament theory High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: Clever Tigers Make Powerful Animals Run * Clever = Calcium: Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. * Tigers = Troponin: Calcium binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin. * Make = Myosin: Myosin binds to actin, forming cross-bridges. * Powerful = Power stroke: Myosin pulls actin towards the centre of the sarcomere. * Animals = ATP: ATP binds to myosin, causing detachment. * Run = Reset: ATP is broken down, re-cocking the myosin head. Remember: Actin and myosin do not shorten; they slide past one another. 31. Slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres Mnemonic: Slow Red Runners Have Endurance Slow-twitch Type I * Red. * Lots of myoglobin. * Many mitochondria. * Dense capillary supply. * Mainly aerobic respiration. * Resist fatigue. * Used for endurance activities such as marathons. Fast-twitch Type II * Paler. * Less myoglobin. * Fewer mitochondria. * Lower capillary density. * More reliance on anaerobic energy pathways. * Contract quickly and powerfully. * Fatigue more quickly. * Used for sprinting and weightlifting. Remember: Slow = Stamina. Fast = Force. PART 7 – NERVOUS SYSTEM 32. Motor neurone structure Mnemonic: Dogs Can Always Nip Toes * D = Dendrites receive signals. * C = Cell body contains nucleus. * A = Axon carries the impulse. * N = Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in myelin. * T = Terminals release neurotransmitters. Myelin sheath * Insulates the axon. * Increases conduction speed. * Schwann cells produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system. * Nodes of Ranvier allow saltatory conduction. 33. Resting potential Mnemonic: Three Naughty Cats Keep Purring Inside * Three = 3 sodium ions pumped out. * Naughty = 2 potassium ions pumped in. * Cats = Pump uses ATP. * Keep = Potassium ions leak out. * Purring = Negative proteins remain inside. * Inside = Inside becomes approximately −70 mV. 34. Action potential Mnemonic: Silly Dogs Run Happily Past Houses * S = Stimulus reaches threshold (−55 mV). * D = Depolarisation begins as sodium channels open. * R = Rising potential as sodium enters. * H = High positive potential, around +40 mV. * P = Potassium channels open and potassium leaves. * H = Hyperpolarisation before returning to resting potential. Important extra facts * Action potentials are all-or-nothing. * A stronger stimulus increases frequency, not the size of the action potential. * The refractory period prevents immediate re-firing. * It helps ensure impulses travel in one direction. 35. Myelinated and non-myelinated neurones Mnemonic: Myelin Jumps Fast * Myelinated neurones have a myelin sheath. * They have nodes of Ranvier. * Impulses jump from node to node. * This is called saltatory conduction. * Non-myelinated neurones conduct continuously. * Myelinated neurones are faster and generally use less energy for impulse transmission. 36. Synaptic transmission High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: All Clever Vikings Drink Really Slowly * All = Action potential: Arrives at the presynaptic knob. * Clever = Calcium: Calcium channels open and calcium enters. * Vikings = Vesicles: Vesicles release neurotransmitter by exocytosis. * Drink = Diffusion: Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft. * Really = Receptors: Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors. * Slowly = Sodium: Sodium channels open and sodium enters, causing depolarisation. Extra: * Neurotransmitter is removed by enzymes or reuptake. * Synapses are one-way because receptors are on the postsynaptic membrane. 37. Acetylcholine Mnemonic: Release, Bind, Sodium, Enzyme, Recycle * Release: Acetylcholine is released from vesicles. * Bind: It binds to postsynaptic receptors. * Sodium: Sodium channels open. * Depolarisation: The membrane becomes less negative. * Enzyme: Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine. * Recycle: Choline is taken back into the presynaptic neurone. 38. Agonists and antagonists Mnemonic: Agonist Activates; Antagonist Blocks. * Agonist binds to a receptor and activates it. * It can mimic a natural neurotransmitter. * Antagonist binds without activating the receptor. * It blocks the natural neurotransmitter from binding. Examples: * Nicotine: agonist at certain acetylcholine receptors. * Curare: antagonist at acetylcholine receptors. Other examples to know: * L-dopa is converted into dopamine. * SSRIs block serotonin reuptake. * Botulinum toxin prevents acetylcholine release. * Organophosphates inhibit acetylcholinesterase. 39. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Main role Acetylcholine Muscle contraction and signalling. Glutamate Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. GABA Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Dopamine Movement and reward. Serotonin Mood, sleep and appetite. Noradrenaline Alertness and attention. 40. Parkinson’s disease Mnemonic: Dying Dopamine Makes Movement Slow * Dopamine-producing neurones in the substantia nigra degenerate. * Less dopamine is released. * Movement control is disrupted. * Symptoms include tremors, rigidity and slow movement. * L-dopa can be converted into dopamine in the brain. * Dopamine agonists can also help manage symptoms. 41. Depression and SSRIs Mnemonic: Serotonin Reuptake is Controlled, Levels Last * Serotonin is involved in mood regulation. * Serotonin is released into the synaptic cleft. * Normally, some serotonin is taken back into the presynaptic neurone. * SSRIs block serotonin reuptake transporters. * Serotonin remains in the synaptic cleft longer. * It can continue binding to postsynaptic receptors. PART 8 – ECGs 42. ECG waves Mnemonic: Please Quit Rushing, Stay Tranquil * P wave: Atrial depolarisation. * QRS complex: Ventricular depolarisation. * T wave: Ventricular repolarisation. Remember: * Atrial depolarisation is followed by atrial contraction. * Ventricular depolarisation is followed by ventricular contraction. * Ventricular repolarisation is followed by ventricular relaxation. 43. Heart rate calculations \text{Heart rate}=\frac{60}{\text{R-R interval in seconds}} Example: If the R-R interval is 0.8 seconds: 60\div0.8=75\text{ bpm} Know: * Tachycardia: over 100 beats per minute. * Bradycardia: under 60 beats per minute. * Regular R-R intervals indicate a regular rhythm. PART 9 – ALL THE 6-MARK QUESTIONS TO PRACTISE These are the extended-answer questions I would use to test your knowledge. They are based on your notes, not guaranteed predictions. Your 30-question exam checklist Tick each question once you can answer it without notes. 0/30 All 1. B1 – CellsCompare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (6 marks) 2. B1 – CellsCompare light and electron microscopes. (6 marks) 3. B1 – MicroscopyExplain how to calculate magnification and actual size. (6 marks) 4. B1 – Gram stainingDescribe how Gram staining is carried out and how it identifies bacteria. (6 marks) 5. B1 – AntibioticsExplain why penicillin is generally more effective against Gram-positive bacteria. (6 marks) 6. B2 – Specialised cellsExplain how a sperm cell is adapted for fertilisation. (6 marks) 7. B2 – Specialised cellsExplain how a red blood cell is adapted to transport oxygen. (6 marks) 8. B2 – ImmunityExplain how phagocytes destroy pathogens. (6 marks) 9. B2 – ImmunityExplain how lymphocytes defend the body against pathogens. (6 marks) 10. B2 – ImmunityCompare the similarities and differences between neutrophils and lymphocytes. (6 marks) 11. B2 – ImmunityExplain how allergies occur. (6 marks) 12. B2 – ImmunityExplain how organ transplants can be rejected. (6 marks) 13. B3 – TissuesExplain how atherosclerosis develops. (6 marks) 14. B3 – LungsExplain how emphysema affects gas exchange. (6 marks) 15. B3 – LungsExplain how chronic bronchitis develops. (6 marks) 16. B3 – LungsExplain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange. (6 marks) 17. B3 – LungsExplain the mechanism of inhalation. (6 marks) 18. B3 – LungsExplain how smoking damages the respiratory system. (6 marks) 19. MusclesExplain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction. (6 marks) 20. MusclesCompare slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres. (6 marks) 21. NervesExplain how resting potential is maintained. (6 marks) 22. NervesExplain how an action potential is generated. (6 marks) 23. NervesCompare myelinated and non-myelinated neurones. (6 marks) 24. NervesExplain how an impulse travels along a myelinated neurone. (6 marks) 25. NervesExplain how a synapse transmits a nerve impulse. (6 marks) 26. NervesExplain how acetylcholine works at a synapse. (6 marks) 27. NervesExplain the difference between agonists and antagonists. (6 marks) 28. NervesExplain how Parkinson’s disease affects the nervous system. (6 marks) 29. NervesExplain how SSRIs affect synaptic transmission. (6 marks) 30. ECGsExplain what the P wave, QRS complex and T wave represent. (6 marks) Reset checklist PART 10 – IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS TO MEMORISE Term Meaning Diffusion Net movement of particles from high to low concentration. Osmosis Net movement of water across a partially permeable membrane from higher to lower water potential. Active transport Movement against a concentration gradient using energy. Phagocytosis Engulfing and digesting pathogens. Antigen Molecule recognised by the immune system. Antibody Protein that binds to a specific antigen. Depolarisation Membrane potential becomes less negative. Repolarisation Membrane potential returns towards its resting value. Hyperpolarisation Membrane potential becomes more negative than resting potential. Synapse Junction between neurones where signals are transmitted. Neurotransmitter Chemical messenger released at a synapse. Exocytosis Release of substances when vesicles fuse with a cell membrane. Atheroma Fatty plaque in an artery wall. Thrombus Blood clot formed within a blood vessel. Sarcomere Contractile unit of a myofibril. Oxyhaemoglobin Haemoglobin bound to oxygen. COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Differentiation Process by which cells become specialised. PART 11 – THE MOST IMPORTANT MNEMONICS TO KNOW Here is your quick podcast-style recap. Read these aloud every day. Topic Mnemonic Cell organisation Cats Take Over Sofas Prokaryotic structures Naughty Pigs Rarely Chase Wolves Graticule calibration Lazy Chefs Dice Meat Gram staining Hot Cats In Autumn Spring Sperm cell A Happy Mouse Tails Atherosclerosis Dirty Money’s Find Pipes Narrowing Today Neutrophil and lymphocyte similarities Both Need Protection Alveoli Silly Tigers Carry Very Massive Eggs Inhalation Dancing Rabbits Visit Pretty Amazing Places Chronic bronchitis Irritated Goblets Make Coughing Increase Emphysema Smoking Makes Every Alveolus Lose Elasticity Sliding filament Clever Tigers Make Powerful Animals Run Slow-twitch fibres Slow Red Runners Have Endurance Motor neurone Dogs Can Always Nip Toes Action potential Silly Dogs Run Happily Past Houses Resting potential Three Naughty Cats Keep Purring Inside Synapse All Clever Vikings Drink Really Slowly Parkinson’s Dying Dopamine Makes Movement Slow ECG Please Quit Rushing, Stay Tranquil PART 12 – HOW TO REVISE THIS FOR YOUR EXAM I would revise in this order: Your 7-day revision plan * Day 1 – Cells Cell structures, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, microscopes and magnification. * Day 2 – Specialised cells Sperm, egg, root hair, palisade and red blood cells. * Day 3 – Immunity Neutrophils, lymphocytes, antibodies, allergies and transplant rejection. * Day 4 – Lungs and circulation Alveoli, inhalation, COPD, smoking and atherosclerosis. * Day 5 – Muscles Sarcomeres, sliding filament theory and muscle fibre comparisons. * Day 6 – Nervous system Resting potential, action potentials, synapses, neurotransmitters and Parkinson’s. * Day 7 – Exam practice Attempt the 6-mark questions without notes, then check your answers. My final advice For every 6-marker, learn: * The mnemonic. * What every letter stands for. * The scientific explanation. * The correct order of events. You have already shown that you can remember the atherosclerosis sequence and explain it in your own words. That’s exactly how you should practise the rest. Don’t just memorise the mnemonics. Make sure you understand what each biological process actually means. That’s what will help you answer the question even if the examiner words it differently.

Removal of CEC

Calc Removal