Results for "Nonliving"

VOCAB-WRITTEN (LIVING/NONLIVING THINGS)

Cell and Structures Cell vs. Viruses • Cells: Simplest living structures capable of performing all life functions independently. • Viruses: Non-living entities requiring a host cell to replicate and survive. Microscopes • Light Microscope: Uses visible light, magnifies up to 1,000x; resolution limited by wavelength of light. • SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope): Creates detailed 3D images of surfaces; does not show internal structures. • TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope): Produces high-resolution images of internal cellular structures. Magnification and Resolution • Magnification: Enlarges an object’s appearance. • Resolution: Measures the clarity of an image by distinguishing two points as separate. Robert Hooke • Coined the term "cells" after observing cork under a microscope. • Published his findings in Micrographia (1665), advancing the study of cells. Cytology and Biochemistry • Cytology: The study of cell structure and function. • Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes and substances within organisms. Cell Fractionation • A laboratory technique to break apart cells and isolate organelles for detailed study. Size Limitations of Cells • Smaller cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, which is essential for efficient exchange of materials. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; simpler and smaller (e.g., bacteria). • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; larger and more complex. Cell Structures and Functions • Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA). • Plasma Membrane: Protects the cell; regulates material exchange. • Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm where cellular processes occur. • Microvilli: Increases surface area for absorption in some animal cells. • Cytoskeleton: ◦ Microfilaments (actin): Provides structural support. ◦ Microtubules: Involved in transport and motility. • Animal Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Desmosomes: Anchor cells together. ◦ Gap Junctions: Channels that allow communication between cells. ◦ Tight Junctions: Create a watertight seal between cells. • Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Nonliving material outside cells, providing structural and biochemical support. • Plant Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Plasmodesmata: Channels connecting cytoplasm between plant cells. Cellular Respiration Definition • Process of extracting energy from glucose to produce ATP, the cell's main energy currency. ATP • Made by the enzyme ATP synthase, powered by hydrogen ion (H⁺) movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Three Stages of Respiration 1 Glycolysis (Cytoplasm): ◦ Reactants: Glucose. ◦ Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), and NADH. 2 Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): ◦ Reactant: Acetyl CoA. ◦ Products: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and 2 ATP. 3 Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (Inner Mitochondrial Membrane): ◦ Reactants: NADH and FADH₂ (electron carriers). ◦ Products: Water and ~32-34 ATP. Key Points • No oxygen = no Krebs cycle or ETC; only 2 ATP are produced via glycolysis. • Fermentation occurs in anaerobic conditions: ◦ Converts pyruvate into lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol (in yeast). Photosynthesis Overview • Process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy (sugars). • Formula: CO2+H2O→O2+G3PCO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow O_2 + G3PCO2​+H2​O→O2​+G3P. Key Concepts 1 Light Reactions (Thylakoid Membranes): ◦ Products: ATP and NADPH (used in the Calvin Cycle). ◦ Oxygen is produced by Photosystem II. 2 Calvin Cycle (Stroma): ◦ Uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into G3P (a sugar precursor). Photosystems • Photosystem II: Produces oxygen and ATP. • Photosystem I: Produces NADPH. Adaptations • C4 Pathway: Spatial separation of steps to avoid photorespiration. • CAM Pathway: Temporal separation, stomata open at night to reduce water loss. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis • Division of a eukaryotic somatic (non-reproductive) cell into two identical diploid cells. • Phases: 1 Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindle forms. 2 Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator. 3 Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. 4 Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform. 5 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm splits into two cells. Meiosis • Specialized cell division in germ cells (ovaries/testes) to produce gametes. • Key Features: ◦ Two divisions produce four genetically unique haploid cells. ◦ Crossing over occurs during Prophase I for genetic diversity. Binary Fission • A simple form of cell division in prokaryotes producing two identical cells. Genetics • Haploid: Single set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes). • Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (e.g., somatic cells). • Punnett Squares and Pedigrees: Tools to predict genetic inheritance. Cell and Structures Cell vs. Viruses • Cells: Simplest living structures capable of performing all life functions independently. • Viruses: Non-living entities requiring a host cell to replicate and survive. Microscopes • Light Microscope: Uses visible light, magnifies up to 1,000x; resolution limited by wavelength of light. • SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope): Creates detailed 3D images of surfaces; does not show internal structures. • TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope): Produces high-resolution images of internal cellular structures. Magnification and Resolution • Magnification: Enlarges an object’s appearance. • Resolution: Measures the clarity of an image by distinguishing two points as separate. Robert Hooke • Coined the term "cells" after observing cork under a microscope. • Published his findings in Micrographia (1665), advancing the study of cells. Cytology and Biochemistry • Cytology: The study of cell structure and function. • Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes and substances within organisms. Cell Fractionation • A laboratory technique to break apart cells and isolate organelles for detailed study. Size Limitations of Cells • Smaller cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, which is essential for efficient exchange of materials. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; simpler and smaller (e.g., bacteria). • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; larger and more complex. Cell Structures and Functions • Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA). • Plasma Membrane: Protects the cell; regulates material exchange. • Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm where cellular processes occur. • Microvilli: Increases surface area for absorption in some animal cells. • Cytoskeleton: ◦ Microfilaments (actin): Provides structural support. ◦ Microtubules: Involved in transport and motility. • Animal Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Desmosomes: Anchor cells together. ◦ Gap Junctions: Channels that allow communication between cells. ◦ Tight Junctions: Create a watertight seal between cells. • Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Nonliving material outside cells, providing structural and biochemical support. • Plant Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Plasmodesmata: Channels connecting cytoplasm between plant cells. Cellular Respiration Definition • Process of extracting energy from glucose to produce ATP, the cell's main energy currency. ATP • Made by the enzyme ATP synthase, powered by hydrogen ion (H⁺) movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Three Stages of Respiration 1 Glycolysis (Cytoplasm): ◦ Reactants: Glucose. ◦ Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), and NADH. 2 Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): ◦ Reactant: Acetyl CoA. ◦ Products: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and 2 ATP. 3 Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (Inner Mitochondrial Membrane): ◦ Reactants: NADH and FADH₂ (electron carriers). ◦ Products: Water and ~32-34 ATP. Key Points • No oxygen = no Krebs cycle or ETC; only 2 ATP are produced via glycolysis. • Fermentation occurs in anaerobic conditions: ◦ Converts pyruvate into lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol (in yeast). Photosynthesis Overview • Process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy (sugars). • Formula: CO2+H2O→O2+G3PCO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow O_2 + G3PCO2​+H2​O→O2​+G3P. Key Concepts 1 Light Reactions (Thylakoid Membranes): ◦ Products: ATP and NADPH (used in the Calvin Cycle). ◦ Oxygen is produced by Photosystem II. 2 Calvin Cycle (Stroma): ◦ Uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into G3P (a sugar precursor). Photosystems • Photosystem II: Produces oxygen and ATP. • Photosystem I: Produces NADPH. Adaptations • C4 Pathway: Spatial separation of steps to avoid photorespiration. • CAM Pathway: Temporal separation, stomata open at night to reduce water loss. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis • Division of a eukaryotic somatic (non-reproductive) cell into two identical diploid cells. • Phases: 1 Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindle forms. 2 Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator. 3 Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. 4 Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform. 5 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm splits into two cells. Meiosis • Specialized cell division in germ cells (ovaries/testes) to produce gametes. • Key Features: ◦ Two divisions produce four genetically unique haploid cells. ◦ Crossing over occurs during Prophase I for genetic diversity. Binary Fission • A simple form of cell division in prokaryotes producing two identical cells. Genetics • Haploid: Single set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes). • Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (e.g., somatic cells). • Punnett Squares and Pedigrees: Tools to predict genetic inheritance.

Biology - Abiotic and Biotic Factors

Genotype: The genes that control a particular trait ex) homozygous dominant BB, heterozygous Bb Biological exponential growth: When resources are unlimited, a population can experience exponential growth, where its size increases at a greater and greater rate. Phenotype: The observable physical characteristics of an organism ex) purple flower Patterns of dispersion: The spatial distribution of individuals within a population is called dispersion. 1. Uniform distribution: Equidistant from each other, may result from social interactions such as competition and territoriality. Penguins! 2. Clumped distribution: Individuals are clustered together in herds/flocks Elephants! 3. Random distribution: Dominant: Trait is always expressed as the dominant trait if one connected allele is dominant. Species interactions: Competition (-/-) Predation (+/-) Mutualism (+/+) Commensalism (+/0) Parasitism (+/-) Recessive Adaptation: Process driven by natural selection, where a recessive trait becomes more prevalent in a population over time due to its beneficial effects in a specific environment. Codon: Sequence of 3 nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid on mRNA. There are 64 codons for 20 amino acids. More than 1 codon can code for 1 amino acid. Nucleotides can be: A, C, G, U DNA: A nucleic acid of two linked strands wounded in a double helix shape. The helix shape comprises a backbone of deoxyribose sugar and phosphates that link the sugars together. The nitrogenous bases lie in the inside of the double helix, purines A and G pair with pyrimidines T and C. A-T C-G Anticodon: An anticodon is the complementary sequence to a codon in mRNA that is found in tRNA. Transcription DNA, mRNA (nucleus) Translation mRNA, tRNA, Protein (ribosome) Codon: AUG Anticodon: UAC Speciation: Process by which new species emerge from an existing one. Allopatric Speciation: Formation of new species due to geographic isolation, populations begin to differ from genetic drift. Sympatric Speciation: Formation of new species due to reproductive isolation from behavioral differences. Spontaneous generation: Simpler forms of life were generated from spontaneous generations…organisms can ‘spawn’ from nonliving matter. Logistic growth: Due to limiting factors within a population. The growth rate of a population will start high and then decline as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. Species Biotic vs abiotic = Living vs nonliving Levels of organization in ecology Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere DNA replication Population density: Population density is the number of individuals of a species per unit area. 10% rule: k Carrying capacity: Maximum number of individuals of a particular species that an environment can support indefinitely Limiting factor: A limiting factor is a factor that restricts the growth or survival of a population. Limiting factors can be either density-dependent (e.g., competition for resources) or density-independent (e.g., natural disasters). Density-dependent (due to its density) vs independent factors (regardless of its density) Interdependence: The interconnectedness of organisms in their surroundings and with the abiotic factors of their environment

science: living vs nonliving things ; cells

Exam 2- PP 1 Nonliving Infectious Particles

BIO 162- ch. 36.2 A Dynamic mixture of living and nonliving components

Module 3: Nonliving pathogens

FBIs, Hyp, living vs nonliving, water properties