Results for "Know all"

Via Hemp Gummies Australia Reviews (2025 New Report) Know All Facts Before Buying!

Via Hemp Gummies AU Reviews(New Report 2025) Know All Facts Before Buying!!

Keto Base Gummies Germany Reviews (2025 New Report) Know All Facts Before Buying!

Arthro MD+ Cream AU Reviews(New Report 2025) Know All Facts Before Buying!!

Elaniva Detox Tea Australia Reviews (2025 New Report) Know All Facts Before Buying!

SuperFlow CBD Gummies-Reviews (2025 New Report) Know All Facts Before Buying!

Stallion X Gummies United Kingdom Reviews(New Report 2025) Know All Facts Before Buying!!

Alpha Surge Male Enhancement Trending Reviews (2025 New Report) Know All Facts Before Buying!

Soanish soeaking final, know all answers

Kong XXL Male Enhancement Reviews (New Report 2025) Know All Facts Before Buying!!

Mukonjo Root® Male Enhancement My All Natural Solution Must Know All!

Mukonjo Root Male Enhancement My Sexual Results Know All Results?

Nos conocemos - Getting to know each other

IFR Know All

Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing

Please wait outside until I let you in, and put all your stuff at the back just like we've done about 20 times already this semester. Okay? Or this semester and last, and you will be just fine. Now your lecture exam too is 90 marks big. It is 90 multiple choice questions. Okay. It is going to be on cardiovascular disorders, urinary system, fluid balance, Okay. So let's start talking about them. First of all, okay, you need to know the difference between a myocardial infarct, ischemic attack, a congestive heart failure, and angina pectorals. You need to know what a low level inflammatory response that develops over time where the endothelium is damaged due to the aging or prolonged hypertension, where LDLs accumulate, and the endothelium is repaired with collagen is called. That might take you a long time to read. Okay? But it is a good question. Okay? You need to know now be really, really clear on these. Okay? You absolutely need to know the difference between right ventricular hypertrophy and left ventricular hypertrophy and what they cause. Because there's two questions on here, and so far, this one hasn't been done very well. Okay? Make sure you understand what right ventricular hypertrophy leads to and you understand what left ventricular hypertrophy leads to. Now the original term, congestive heart failure, that refers to left ventricular hypertrophy leading to backup in the lungs. K? You need to know what arteries or vessels are used in bypass surgery. You need to know what a mini stroke is. Okay? You need to know the difference between thrombus and ballast occlusion and arthroma. You need to know what is a restriction in blood supply generally due to factors in the blood vessels with resultant damage or dysfunction of tissue. You need to know, what are the consequences of an aging cardiovascular system. And then I I've got a matching question for you. You need to match the basic function of the proximal convoluted tubule, the glomerulus, and the peri colic duct. And then two of my favorite questions. Are you ready? Okay. You have to find out which of the following is the best explanation for why the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule contain so many microclonary. Oh, isn't that lovely? Okay. And then the other one you need to know is you need to find the best explanation for the microvilli on the apical surface of the proximal convoluted tubules. So don't get that one wrong because we've talked about microvilli about a bazillion times. Okay? This picture is gonna be on there, folks. Okay? This is the picture of the of the nephron from your textbook. Okay. You need to label things like glomerulus glomerulus afferent arteriole collecting duct nephron move. Okay. Where do you find the granular cells? Okay. The difference between the medulla and the cortex. Make sure you know all of those things. I'll read you this one. This is a good question too. Hydrostatic pressure is the primary driving force of plasma through the filtration membrane into the capsular space. All the publicly following statements reflects why hydrostatic pressure is so high in the glomerular capillaries. Select the one statement that does not explain the high pressure within the glomerular capillaries. So you need to know why glomerular capillary pressure is higher than the rest of the capillaries in the body. You need to know how or why cells or transport proteins are prevented from moving through how yeah. What drives reabsorption of organic nutrients in the proximal condylated tubule? Who drives thus? You need to know the mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient the The functional and structural unit of the kidneys is what? The g force pushing the blood and solids out of the blood across the filtration membrane is what? Okay. The macular densities cells do what? Function in angiotensin two is to do what? What is, specific gravity or density? Okay. If you talk about the specific gravity or density of urine, how is it different from water? You need to actually, this is just one question, but it should be a pretty simple one. Okay? You need to place the following and correct sequence from the formation of a drop of urine to its elimination of the body. And so you have to go through from well, I'll just read it to you. Major calyx, minor calyx, nephron, urethra, ureter, and collecting that. So you need to put those in order from start to finish. Okay? What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal? You need to know what would happen. Reabsorption of bilevels of glucose and amino acids in the filtrate is accomplished. The 44 more. Okay. So you need to match to their definition. All of your hypo and hypers. Make sure you have some under control. Okay? And then you need to match possible causes. So there's possible causes of respiratory alkalosis, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory acidosis. Respiratory alkalosis, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory acidosis. There are possible causes for those four things. You need to match the disorder to the cause. Okay? And then you need to know, the body's motor volume is mostly tied to the level of then I have a couple of clinical correlation questions for you, but they are multiple choice this time. So something happened to Jane. You have to tell me what's happening to Jane. Okay? Now whereas sodium is mainly found in the extracellular fluid, most is found in intracellular systems are. Okay. Which of the following is not a likely source of hydrogen ions in blood plasma, so there's a few types in the tablets, so make sure you know which ones are going to produce acids and which ones aren't. And then Annie had something happen to her as well. Across capillary walls is what? Regulation of potassium balance is what? Now Dave Dave did something silly. Okay? Dave ran a marathon. Okay? And then Dave did something even more silly afterwards. I want you to tell me what happened to Dave. And in addition to that, Nancy is having a panic attack. So I want you to tell me what's happening to Nancy in terms of respiratory aesophosis and respiratory aldosterone. Okay. If thyroid and parathyroid glands were surgically removed, which of the following would go out of balance without replacement therapy? Falling arterial blood pressure holds which? An illness, Doug. Doug has severe diarrhea. Okay. And, is accompanying the loss of bicarbonate or secretions. So how is Doug gonna compensate for that for Doug? Okay. You need to know what the medical term for kidney stones is. You need to know what happens, or what could cause the passage of proteins, red blood cells, and white blood cells into the urine. You need to know how to solve prostatic enlargement, and, you need to know what the presence of white blood cells in urine is called and what is causing it. Okay? And then there's a picture of the lymphatic of the lymph node. Okay. You need to label the lymph node picture. And then you there is going to be a matching question on lymphatic structures, so you need to know what happens in the spleen, the lymph nodes, the thoracic duct, the lymph, and the pyre patches. There's a list, a small short list. Okay? So in other words, you're going to need to know what is classified as a lymphoid organ and what does not. Okay? So make sure you know what your lymphoid organs are. You need to know the pathway of lymph. So it starts in lymph capillaries. Where does it end? Make sure you know all the steps along the way. And then you need to know the functions of the spleen. What did what does the spleen do? And that is it for an example

.6 Skull Anterior view: Know all the bones that make up the bony orbit, all the bones that contain sinuses, and identify all the following landmarks:

Know all directional terms and how to use them

Field ID Quiz 2 birds to know (ALL BIRDS)

Complete Course Vocabulary Term to Know (All Units 1-9) (All Text Chapters) AP Psychology MARTIN