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Key Documents and Figures in Early American History and Government Save Flashcards Learn Test Blocks Blast Match House of Burgesses The legislature for the Jamestown colony established by the Virginia Company in 1619; it was the first legislative assembly in North America Track progress 1 / 48 Profile Picture Created by Audreybehm1 Created just now Terms in this set (48) Original House of Burgesses The legislature for the Jamestown colony established by the Virginia Company in 1619; it was the first legislative assembly in North America Mayflower Compact The governing document for Plymouth Colony that established forms of self-government for the colonists Magna Carta A document limiting the power of the king of England and guaranteeing certain rights to Englishmen English Bill of Rights A document signed in 1689 that guaranteed the rights of English citizens Enlightenment An eighteenth-century movement inspired by European philosophers who believed that society's problems could be solved by reason and science John Locke Was an English philosopher who wrote Two Treatises of Government. Great Awakening a religious movement in the English colonies during the 1730s and 1740s that was heavily inspired by evangelical preachers Thomas Jefferson Was an American farmer, landholder, author, architect, lawyer, and statesman. He joined the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1768 and began advocating for American independence in the 1770's. Jefferson represented Virginia in the Second Continental Congress, during which time he drafted and revised the Declaration of Independence. He went on to serve as a diplomat to France and as the nation's first secretary of state, second vice president, and third president. Jefferson also founded the University of Virginia. John Hancock Was a Massachusetts statesman who served as the president of the Second Continental Congress. George Washington Worked early on as a surveyor of the Virginia colony. Washington became interested in western expansion in the Ohio Country and invested in the Ohio Company. In 1752, he accepted an appointment to the military as an officer. Two years later, he led a company to drive out the French from Fort Duquesne. Later, he went on to serve as the commander-in-chief of the colonies' Continental Army and to become the first President of the United States. Republican Government a government in which officials are representatives elected by the people; also known as a representative democracy Bill of Rights the first ten amendments to the Constitution, protecting freedoms guaranteed to citizens by the government Articles of Confederation the original federal constitution drafted by the Continental Congress in 1777 Shays' Rebellion a farmers' rebellion, led by Daniel Shays, against higher taxes in Massachusetts Confederation an alliance or league of governments pledged to work together Northwest Territory a vast territory north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania as far as the Mississippi River James Madison Was a Patriot who represented Virginia in the Continental Congress. In 1787, he participated in the Constitutional Convention and was a leading voice in replacing the Articles of Confederation with a new plan for government. For his part in winning passage of the 1787 Constitution, he became known as the Father of the Constitution. Madison went on to serve as Thomas Jefferson's secretary of state and then to become the fourth president of the United States. Checks and Balances a system in which each branch of the government has the power to monitor and limit the actions of the other two Federalism a political system in which power is shared between the national government and state governments The Federalist Papers a series of 85 essays, written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, that explained and defended the Constitution Separation of Powers a principle that divides power among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government Antifederalists one who opposed ratification of the Constitution Virginia Declaration of Rights a document listing the protected rights of Virginians, which was incorporated into the Virginia state constitution in 1776; it influenced a number of later documents, including the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights Limited Government a principle stating that the government has only as much authority as the people give it and, therefore, its power is limited; government in which government actions are limited by law John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the United States. After serving under George Washington in the Revolutionary War, including the winter at Valley Forge, Marshall held various law and political positions. As chief justice, Marshall participated in more than 1,000 decisions, writing more than 500 of them himself, often advancing and defending judicial power and the principles of American federalism. Judicial Review the power of the Supreme Court to decide whether acts of a president or laws passed by Congress are constitutional Louisiana Purchase the 1803 purchase from France by the United States of the territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains Monroe Doctrine a foreign policy doctrine set forth by President Monroe in 1823 that discouraged European intervention in the Western Hemisphere Andrew Jackson was an American military officer before serving in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, and finally as the seventh U.S. President from 1829 to 1837. As a general in the U.S. Army during the War of 1812, Jackson successfully defended New Orleans. As President, he vetoed the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States, opposed the nullification issue in South Carolina, and initiated the spoils system. Nullification a theory that states could nullify, or void, any federal law they deemed unconstitutional Indian Removal Act an act passed by Congress in 1830 that allowed the federal government to negotiate land exchanges with the American Indians in the Southeast Trail of Tears an act passed by Congress in 1830 that allowed the federal government to negotiate land exchanges with the American Indians in the Southeast Panic of 1837 the start of a prolonged downturn in the American economy touched off by changes in government policy Alexis de Tocqueville was a French aristocrat whose travels in the United States in the 1830's resulted in the publication of Democracy in America, an influential analysis of American politics. Industrial Revolution a shift from manual labor to mechanized work that began in Great Britain during the 1700's and spread to the United States around 1800 Underground Railroad a system that existed before the Civil War in which African American and white abolitionists helped people trying to escape enslavement travel to safe areas in the North and in Canada Abolitionists reformers who advocated a complete end to slavery Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in Maryland and escaped to the North in 1838. In 1841, he spontaneously shared his experiences of enslavement at an antislavery convention, and he soon became a speaker for the abolitionist cause. His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, first published in 1845, reached still more people. During the Civil War, Douglass worked as an adviser to President Lincoln. Douglass also lent strong support to the women's movement. Second Great Awakening a religious revival movement in the first half of the 1800s Lucretia Mott was deeply committed to the ideal of reform. Known for her effective public speaking, she traveled the country promoting abolition. Frustrated by attempts to limit women's involvement in reform, Mott turned her attention to women's rights in the 1840's. She worked with Elizabeth Cady Stanton to organize the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a lively and often fiery crusader for women's rights. While raising a growing family, she worked with Lucretia Mott and others to organize the Seneca Falls Convention. From the beginning, she pushed for women to fight for the right to vote, helping shape the direction of the movement for years to come. Declaration of Sentiments a document created at the Seneca Fall Convention in 1848 that demanded equal rights for women Susan B. Anthony was a campaigner for reforms and civil rights throughout her life. At different times she took up the cause of abolition, temperance, and working women's rights. But it is for the cause of woman suffrage that Anthony is best known. In 1869, she and her friend, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), which led to over 30 years of relentless lecture tours, lobbying, and civil disobedience geared toward gaining the vote for women. Suffrage the right to vote Manifest Destiny the 19th century doctrine that westward expansion of the United States was not only inevitable but a God-given right Sam Houston was the only American to serve as governor of two different states—first Tennessee, then Texas. In between, he was commander of the Texan army, president of the Republic of Texas, and U.S. senator from Texas. Although an enslaver, Houston opposed the spread of slavery into the West. He was removed from the governorship of Texas after speaking out against Texas seceding from the Union. James K. Polk was a lawyer and politician who served as the 11th president of the United States from 1845 to 1849. Before being elected President, Polk served in the Tennessee legislature and as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives. As President, Polk led the United States through the Mexican-American War, resulting in the United States gaining large territories along the Pacific coast and in the Southwest. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo the 1848 treaty ending the Mexican-American War Add or remove terms Learn More You can also click the terms or definitions to blur or reveal them Review with an activity About us About Quizlet How Quizlet works Careers Advertise with us Get the app For students Flashcards Test Learn Solutions Modern Learning Lab Quizlet Plus Study Guides Pomodoro timer For teachers Live Blog Be the Change Quizlet Plus for teachers Resources Help center Honor code Community guidelines Terms Privacy California Privacy Your Privacy/Cookie Choices Ads and Cookie Settings Interest-Based Advertising Quizlet for Schools Parents Language English (USA) © 2025 Quizlet, Inc. COPPA Safe Harbor Certification seal Home Your library Notifications 5 Your courses AP Psychology Advanced Chemist... Honors Algebra 2 New folder Start here Flashcards Study Guides Practice Tests Expert Solutions Home Your library Notifications 5 AP Psychology Advanced Chemist... 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Skip to main content CloseBlackboard Learn NOMTHANDAZO DLADLA Activity Courses Calendar Messages Grades Tools Sign Out Privacy Terms Accessibility Menu Courses Skip to main content 2025_SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE 1 Course Faculty Ms. LINDI MANDA Instructor Details & Actions Course Description View the course description Progress Tracking On Class Collaborate Join session Attendance View your attendance Books & Tools View course & institution tools Course Content × LEARNING UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE People cannot, not connect Introduction The Social intelligence (SI) study is geared towards equipping learners to acquire the ability to cope well with others and sharpen their interpersonal practical skills (situational awareness, presence, authenticity, clarity and empathy [S.P.A.C.E.]) in order to succeed effectively in various settings (Albrecht 1930). The holistic model - S.P.A.C.E. used in this study is for outlining, determining, and advancing SI at personal level, and it‘s shared to offer guidelines on using it as an effective diagnostic formula and developmental tool for professional and personal success. This is customized from Karl Albrecht‘s work on Social Intelligence. S.P.A.C.E. – As a different kind of smart refers to: S – Situational awareness: knowledge of, attentive to and wise about various contexts and the stimuli they exert and the reactions that arise from such stimuli P - Presence: the manner in which a person affects individuals or groups through physical appearance, mood and demeanour, and body language and how he/she occupies space in an environment A – Authenticity: honesty and sincerity C – Clarity: ability to express one‘s thoughts, opinions, ideas, and intentions clearly; comprehension of the power of languages as a medium of thought and expression; and to use language in ways that meet their needs E – Empathy: ability to be truly aware and considerate of other peoples by tuning their feelings to those of the affected persons. Some questions that arise out of all this are: 1. Where does the concept of social intelligence fit into the field of engineering? 2. How does it apply in an engineer‘s job? 3. How does it apply to the way people work together? 4. Does it apply to the way teams accomplish their missions, to the way employees serve clients, and/or the ways in which bosses and employees interact? 5. Does it apply more broadly across the ―society‖ that exists in every established organization? This module consists of the two parts: Topic 1: Introduction to Social Intelligence It offers a theoretical background to social intelligence in general Topic 2: Social Intelligence and Engineering A discussion of social intelligence broadly built around interactive activities for students to develop the relevant 21st century graduate‘s skills. Introduction to Social Intelligence While you‘re born with your own intelligence or IQ, Social Intelligence is mostly learned. It is considered as the capacity to know oneself, others and things around them. SI develops from experience with others and learning from occurrences, mishaps and successes in social settings. Simply, social intelligence can be regarded as what‘s known as ―tact‖ or ―common sense‖ or even ―street marts.‖ While societies put a huge focus on book smarts and IQ, what‘s often overlooked is that, people‘s lives are largely influenced by their relationships with one another. Mistakenly, many still believe that a measurement of one‘s smartness is through books. Contrary, research has revealed that true intelligence isn‘t only about books smart but also about street smarts. Along with this; it has also been determined that building strong social relationships is worth the effort because of various benefits including the following: · Good relationships are effective for a person because they help to boost their immune system and therefore, assist in combating diseases. · Whenever one has healthy relationships, they will always have to talk to and so, help them deal with major sources of stress, health problems and depression which can be associated to loneliness and poor relationships. · Individuals‘ daily lives are affected by the relationships they have with their significant others, such as boyfriends, spouse, children, parents, colleagues and friends. There are various perspectives on social intelligence and two dominant views are of psychometric and personality, of which are contrary on many crucial points, such as comparative assessment of individuals, but they later agree in recent work on the development of social intelligence (for reviews, see Greenspan, 1979; Greenspan, 1997). Nevertheless, that is beyond the scope of this module. Here, the concentration is on helping students develop as possible as they can, rather than turning them into SI‘s experts. 1.1 The Nature of Social Intelligence The origin of its definition is traced back in 1920 to the psychologist, Edward Thorndike who claimed that it is ―the ability to understand and manage men and women and girls, to act wisely in human relations.‖ Later in the 1930s Moss and Hunt argued that social intelligence is ―the ability to get along with others.‖ Along with this, Vernon in 1930s also described it as being ―reflected in the general ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters and susceptibility to stimuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers.‖ Thus, according to these authors, social intelligence bears both the cognitive features (the ability to understand people) and practical features (ability to deal with and respond towards them). However, social intelligence is often confused with various intelligences such as emotional intelligence, collective intelligence or group intelligence. Perhaps, this influenced the follow up work by Gardner in the 1980s which looked at the model of multiple intelligences with intrapersonal and interpersonal as part of them. Accordingly, he argued that ―social intelligence allows people to take advantage of the resources of others. We are finding that much of people‘s effective intelligence is, in a sense, outside the brain. This means, you can use intelligence for other people, if you know how to reach it and how to use it. Therefore, the best strategy is to mobilize other people around you.‖ Gardner purported that interpersonal intelligence covers the ability to read other people‘s moods, motives and other mental states; and intrapersonal includes the ability to access and assess one‘s own feelings and to draw on them to guide behaviour. He also viewed as the basis of emotional intelligence (EI) with a greater focus on cognition and understanding than feeling. According to Ford and Tisak, social intelligence (SI) has both convergent and divergent validity, as a better predictor of behavioural measure of social effectiveness than academic intelligence. A glaring common agreement is that SI is the ability to effectively plan and direct complicated social relationships and social realities in various environments. Honeywill suggests that it can also be regarded as is ―an aggregated measure of self and social-awareness, evolved social beliefs and attitudes and a capacity and appetite to manage complex social change.‖ Along this, Nicholas Humphrey claimed that SI defines human beings more than quantitative intelligence. In support, Gerdner indicated that SI is equivalent to interpersonal intelligence and also closely related to theory of mind. Combined proponents of SI agreed that it is distinct from general intelligence and may serve as a better predictor of behaviour. According to Zaccaro et al (1990) socially-intelligent individuals are aware of the social situation, including the problems and needs of others (social perceptiveness). They are also able to behave appropriately for different social situations (behavioral flexibility). Thus, these aspects can be seen through a) Social understanding and b) Situational-appropriate behaviour. Along with this, Kosmitzki and John described a socially intelligent person as the one who: · Understands people‘s thoughts, feelings and intentions well; · Is good at dealing with people; · Has extensive knowledge of the rules and norms in human relations; · Is good at taking the perspective of other people; · Adapts well in social situations; · Is warm and caring; and · Is open to new experiences, ideas and values. While embracing social intelligence, Salovey and Mayer in their work considered emotional intelligence as a part of social intelligence. According to them, it includes the ability to monitor feelings and emotions of themselves and others. It is the ability to distinguish between signals and use this information to manage thoughts and actions of others. Social intelligence is the ability to use emotional intelligence in social situations. It incorporates interaction with others and readiness to estimate the social situation around. However, Boyatzis and Sala purported that the problem in calling Social Intelligence as ‗intelligence‘ was to test it on the criteria of ‗intelligence‘. These researchers highlighted that, it had to be classified as an ‗intelligence‘, a concept should be: 1. Behaviourally observable 2. Related to biological and in particular neural-endocrine functioning. That is, each cluster should be differentiated as to the type of neural circuitry and endocrine system involved 3. Related to life and job outcomes 4. Sufficiently different from other personality constructs so that the concept adds value to understanding the human personality and behaviour 5. The measures of the concept, as a psychological construct, should satisfy the basic criteria for a sound measure, that is show convergent and discriminant validity. Accordingly, Goleman addressed this call by looking through biological research and focused on the neural endocrine functioning regards social intelligence. As a result, in his work he highlights that social intelligence is explains in terms of neurology and this fulfils Boyatsi‘s and Sala‘s need for social intelligence to qualify as an intelligence. Additionally, Albrecht expanded the research on multiple intelligences and identified that human beings have six basic dimension of intelligence. Among these, social intelligence is one of them, defined as ―Interacting successfully with others in various contexts‖, with a close term Emotional Intelligence defined as ―Self-insight and the ability to regulate or manage one‘s reactions to experience‖. In addition, Seal et al claimed that the term was defined as the behavioural manifestations of the interpersonal awareness of others‘ emotions, needs, thoughts, and perceptions as well as navigate the larger social environment and working with others. Goleman (2006) and Boyatzis and Goleman (2006) reclassified their array of competencies and clusters into two distinct aspects. The interpersonal clusters (social awareness and relationship management) were relabeled social intelligence (SI) competencies; and the intrapersonal clusters (self-awareness and self- management) were relabeled emotional intelligence(EI) competencies. The new term, emotional and social intelligence (ESI) helps to differentiate the behavioral manifestations of the intrapersonal awareness and management of emotions within the self (EI) from the behavioral manifestations of the interpersonal awareness of others’ emotions, needs, thoughts, and perceptions as well as navigate the larger social environment and working with others (SI). This integrated concept of ESI offers more than a convenient framework for describing human dispositions—it offers a theoretical structure for the organization of personality and linking it to a theory of action and job performance. This helped it get positioned as a competency as well. As, according to Boyatzis, a competency is an ―underlying characteristic of the person that leads to or causes effective or superior performance‖ therefore, an ESI competency got defined as an ability to recognize, understand, and use emotional information about oneself (EI) or others(SI) that leads to or causes effective or superior performance. The correlation of social and emotional intelligence approach is clearly reflected by Bar-On, who uses the concept of emotional and social intelligence. This model includes set of interrelated emotional and social competencies that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, how we understand and get along with other people and how we handle daily activities. In practice, they can complement each other as they complement to the abstract intelligence. Human being is a solid personality whose career is hardly separable from personal or family life. Emotional intelligence is essential for human life, because it helps to perceive, understand and manage emotions. It represents a personal, natural wisdom that allows him to live life joyfully, to overcome and solve everyday problems and achieve success. Social intelligence is the ability to relate to people, perceive social situations and properly interpret them and react accordingly. It is the ability to create harmonious interpersonal relationships and the ability to solve conflicts. One component cannot exist without the other. This definition can be elaborated to ―how people handle themselves and their relationships‖, according to Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee. So, ESI is a set of competencies, or abilities, organized along two distinct aspect (emotional and social) in how a person: (a) is aware of himself/herself; (b) manages him/herself; (c) is aware of others; and (d) manages his/her relationships with others. Building upon and integrating the competency research, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee presented a model of ESI with 18 competencies arrayed in four clusters and two aspects. Researcher Shaun identified socially intelligent people as: · They have confidence in social circumstances. · They have and demonstrate a genuine interest in their fellow beings. · They are capable of adapting, understanding and responding effectively. · They express their emotions and feelings clearly and appropriately with assertiveness. · They have an awareness of the internal and external locus of control. Karl Albrecht, around 2009, elaborated the five major dimensions of social intelligence as situational radar, presence/bearing, authenticity, clarity and empathy (can be seen as an acronym SPACE). 1. Situational Radar (Awareness): the ability to read situations, understand the social context and choose behavioral strategies that are most likely to be successful 2. Presence: the external sense of one‘s self that others perceive: confidence, bearing self- respect, and self-worth. 3. Authenticity: the opposite of being phony. Authenticity is a way of behaving which engenders a perception that one is honest with one‘s self as well as others. 4. Clarity: the ability to express one‘s self clearly, use language effectively, explain concepts clearly, and persuade with ideas. 5. Empathy: the ability to create a sense of connectedness with others; to get them on your wavelength and invite them to move with and toward you. In that decade, the consistent aspects of social intelligence among all researches were: the knowledge of the social situations, accurate interpretation of the social situation and the skills to behave appropriately in that social situation. Hopkins and Bilimoria opined that to be considered socially intelligent one has to be good at human relationships. Crowne defined it as the ability to interact effectively with others in any social situation. Emmerling and Boyatzis describe social intelligence competency as the ability to be aware of, understand and act on emotional information about others that leads to effective performance. Thus, what was proposed by Thorndike during the first half of the 1900s was initially perceived similarly as a single concept by fellow researchers. However, later others began to see social intelligence as a set of two personal intelligences, divided into interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences that include knowledge about oneself and others. Many scholars proposed a number of different ways to be socially intelligent. It has been thought of as the ability to accomplish interpersonal tasks and to act wisely in relationships. It has been seen as a capability that allows one to produce adequate behaviour for the purpose of achieving a desired goal. It is thought that SI involves being intelligent in relationships. Some researchers even believed that the social facets of intelligence may be as important as the cognitive aspects. However, most of them agreed that the Social Intelligence includes knowledge of the social situations and the skill to perceive and interpret the situations accurately, for leading one to successfully behave in the situation. In other words, it has always been seen as an ability to interact effectively with others. In an important research, Süd, Weis, & Seidel focused on more of a potential-based concept of SI, rather than behavior-based approaches and the broader concept of social competence (i.e., including both cognitive and non-cognitive abilities and skills). In the potential-based approach, SI encompasses only the cognitive abilities as necessary prerequisites for social competent behavior. Consequently, social competent behavior is part of the external criterion, not the construct. Social competent behavior, on the other hand, depends on cognitive (i.e., SI) and non-cognitive prerequisites (e.g., intentions, motivation, personality traits, values, norms, etc.). Thus, SI has been specified as a multidimensional cognitive ability construct that relies on an integrative model derived from a literature review. This model integrates both theoretical and operational definitions of SI. In its current version, the model distinguishes between the following cognitive ability domains and has been in part supported by data in a multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) study by Weis and Süd in 2007. So SI is about five qualities: Social understanding (SU) also social inference, social interpretation, or social judgment)represents the ability to understand social stimuli against the background of the given social situation. It also includes diversely labeled requirements such as the recognition of the mental states behind words, the comprehension of observed behaviors in the social context in which they occur, and the decoding of social cues. Social memory (SM) represents the ability to store and recall objectively given social information that can vary in complexity. The concept of SM was originally introduced by Moss and also appeared in works of Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, and Bernstein as memory for names and faces. Social perception (SP) represents the ability to perceive socially relevant information quickly in more or less complex situations. SP is distinguished from SU by only relying on objectively present information in order to exclude interpretative requirements. Social flexibility (SF) is the ability to produce as many and as diverse solutions or explanations as possible for a social situation or a social problem. The concept was originally introduced in Guilford‘s (1967) structure of human intellect model in the domain of divergent production of behavioural contents. Social knowledge (SK) includes knowledge of social matters, the individuals‘ fund of knowledge about the social world, or knowledge of the rules of etiquette. Unlike the remaining dimensions, SK highly depends on the social values of the environment and is not considered as a pure cognitive dimension. 1.2 Social Brain Goleman reveals that human beings have specific structures in their brains built to optimize relationships: · A spindle cell:- is the fastest acting neuron in our brain that guides our social decisions. Human brains contain more of these spindle cells than any other species. · Mirror neurons:- help us predict the behaviour of people around us by sub-consciously mimicking their movements. This helps us feel as they feel, move as they move, etc. · When a man gets a look from a woman he finds attractive, his brain secretes dopamine–a chemical that makes us feel pleasure. 1.3 Key elements of social intelligence: · Verbal fluency · Conversational skills · Knowledge of social roles and rules, as well as scripts · Effective listening skills · Understanding of how to cope well with others · Role playing · Social self-efficacy · Management skills · Intercultural and multicultural skills There‘s a lot going on behind one‘s words. While one speaks, the brain takes in micro- expressions, voice intonations, gestures and pheromones. 1.3.1 Micro-expressions: - are brief, involuntary facial expressions shown on the face of humans according to emotions experienced: · Usually occur in high-stakes situations, where people have something to lose or gain. · Occur when a person is consciously trying to conceal all signs of how they are feeling, or · When a person does not consciously know how they are feeling. · Unlike regular facial expressions, it is difficult/impossible to hide micro expression reactions. Micro-expressions cannot be controlled as they happen in a fraction of a second, but it is possible to capture someone's expressions with a high speed camera and replay them at much slower speeds. Micro-expressions express the seven universal emotions: disgust, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, contempt, and surprise. 1.3.2Voice intonations: · is the variation of pitch when one speaks (variation of levels we speak with is crucial in how we express ourselves) · one of the elements of linguistic prosody · the most important element of accent · helps to craft music of the language · it also helps the listener to follow the nature of communication Gestures and pheromones: - Pheromones give you the edge with attraction. People perceive all sorts of interesting things about one another through olfaction. It feels pretty normal – when we want something we take it, right? I‘m feeling thirsty; I‘ll grab a drink. I‘m hungry; I‘ll pick-up a snack. But you know what? This isn‘t what you should do when you desire a partner. The foundation of pick-up or game is ACQUISITION—the NEED to ACQUIRE a girl or man. This is the absolute, unquestioned and accepted law of game. The whole pick-up framework is built upon this. Simply, they are stimuli that elicit a reaction. Accordingly, people who have high SI have a greater awareness of their proto- conversations. 1.3.3 The Proto-conversation Goleman identifies two aspects of proto-conversations: Social Awareness: Your response to others (the manner in which you do so is crucial) Primal Empathy: Sensing other other‘s feelings and putting yourself in theirshoes Attunement: Listening with full receptivity Empathic Accuracy: Understanding others‘ thoughts and intentions Social Cognition: Understanding the social world and the working of a webof relationships Social Facility: Knowing how to have smooth, effective interactions Synchrony: Interacting smoothly Self-presentation: Knowing how you come across Influence: Shaping the outcome of social interactions Concern: Caring about others‘ needs 1.3.4 Your Social Triggers Social awareness is the capability to reckon that people and places trigger different emotions and this affects our ability to connect. Think about a time you felt excited and energized by an interaction. Now think of a time when you felt drained and defeated after an interaction. Along this, Goleman presents a theory on how our brain processes social interactions: The Low Road is our instinctual, emotion-based way we process interactions. It‘s how we read body-language, facial expressions and then formulate gut feelings about people. The High Road is our logical, critical thinking part of an interaction. We use the high road to communicate, tell stories and make connections. Why are these important? The Low Road guides our gut feelings and instincts. For example, if people didn‘t come to your birthday parties as a kid, you might feel a pang of anxiety when thinking about your own birthday as an adult–even if you have plenty of friends who would attend. Your High Road tells you that you are a grown up and things have changed, but your Low Road still gives you social anxiety. I call these social triggers. You should be aware of your unconscious social triggers to help you make relationship decisions. Knowing your Low Road social triggers helps your High Road function. Here‘s how you can identify yours: What kinds of social interactions do you dread? Who do you feel anxious hanging out with? When do you feel you can‘t be yourself? 1.3.5 Your Secure Base Whether you are a cheerful extrovert or a quiet introvert, everyone needs space and a place to recharge. Goleman suggests that‘s a ―secure base.‖ This is a ritual place or an activity that helps one process emotions and occurrences. A secure base is helpful for two main reasons. 1. It gives one a place to recharge before interactions so they don‘t get burnt out. 2. It helps one process and learn from each social encounter. 3. You can improve your Social Intelligence, you just need to prioritize it. Broken Bonds One of the biggest pitfalls in social intelligence is a lack of empathy. Goleman calls these Broken person treats Bonds. Philosopher Martin Buber coined the idea of the ―I-It‖ connection which happens when one another like an object as opposed to a human being. Imagine you have just lost a family member. You get a phone call from a friend offering condolences. Immediately you sense the obligation of the caller. They are distracted, you can hear the typing of keys in the background. Their wishes are cold, memorized and insincere. The call Case study: Cynthia receives an email from her friend, Joyce, every 60 days to grab lunch. Joyce‘s emails are always similar. When Cynthia realized the similarity in the emails, she started to think of herself as Joyce‘s ―calendar alert‖ that Joyce had set-up. Cynthia went low thinking as merely an item on Joyce‘s to do list. Cynthia analyzed that Joyce felt she ‗should‘ do lunch to keep in touch. But this led to their lunches to be perfunctory, predictable and boring to Cynthia. So, Cynthia stopped saying yes to grabbing lunch with her friend. · Don‘t interact because you feel that you ‗should.‘ · Say no to obligations if you can. · Interact with empathy or don‘t interact at all. 2. Positively Infectious When someone smiles at you, it‘s hard not to smile back. The same goes for other facial expressions. When your friend is sad and begins to tear up, your own eyes will often get moist. Why? These are your mirror neurons in action–part of your Low Road response to people. ―Hang out with people whose moods you want to catch. ―If moods are catching, gravitate towards people who will infect you with the good ones‖ 3. Adopt to Adapt Empathy works in such a way that one‘s Low Road automatically mirrors the people around them. Our brain copies the people around us, so we feel as they feel. This in turn helps us understand them, where they are coming from and even be better at predicting their reactions. ―Many paths of the low road run through mirror neurons. The neurons activate in a person based on something that is experienced by another person in the same way is experienced by the person himself. Whether pain (or pleasure) is anticipated or seen in another, the same neuron is activated.‖ makes you feel worse, not better.-Goleman, 41 4. Beware the Dark Triad Goleman shares the dark triad of people: · The narcissistic personality is when someone has an inflated view of themselves, a huge ego and a sense of entitlement. · The Machiavellian personality is when someone is manipulative and consistently exploits the people around them. · The psychopath personality is someone who is impulsive, remorselessness and extremely selfish. Goleman summarizes the dark triad motto as: Others exist to adore me. 5. Mindblind Mindblind is the inability to sense what is happening in the mind of someone else. The key to mindsight is compassion. ―In short, self-absorption in all its forms kills empathy, let alone compassion. When we focus on ourselves, our world contracts as our problems and preoccupations loom large. But when we focus on others, our world expands. Our own problems drift to the periphery of the mind and so seem smaller, and we increase our capacity for connection – or compassionate action.‖ – Goleman, 54 Goleman claims that people are wired for altruism. People are inherently good. However, sometimes they forget how good it makes them feel to be good. Dr. Baron-Cohen devised something called the Empathy Quotient. This is a quiz to test your empathy levels. While he devised the test for adults on the Aspergers or Autism Spectrum, but this quiz has been found to be very helpful. 6. A People Prescription ―The most striking finding on relationships and physical health is that socially integrated people, those who are married, have close family and friends, belong to social and religious groups, and participate widely in these networks, recover more quickly from disease and live longer. Roughly eighteen studies show a strong connection between social connectivity and mortality.‖ – Goleman, 247. 1.3.6 Synthesis of ways to develop your social intelligence: How to develop social intelligence? According to Goleman ―friends make you healthy;‖ healthy happy life is positive relationships. Your partner, friends, colleagues and children, support your soul as well as our immune system. This has been realized through studies that have found that kinds words, physical touch, a song from childhood improve the vital signs of the sick and even fatally ill. Therefore, investing in your relationships is worth the effort. Simply put, following are ways in which you can develop your social intelligence: · Willingness and dedication to learn · Paying more attention to social happenings around you · Develop yourself to be a better speaker · Networking · Try to listen more to others (active listening) · Inquisitiveness to know more about social situations · Learn more about your own behaviour · Acquire knowledge on social successes and failures 1.3.7 Let’s look at the kinds of smart for you to be to figure that out and answer: Gardner, a developmental psychologist and Harvard professor name, developed in the 80s and 90s. In his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner developed the approach that intelligence is spectrum composed of different kinds of minds and therefore people learn, remember, and understand in different ways. He initially listed 7 types of intelligences, and later added the 8th (naturalist). This is what it looks like: 1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures. Strengths Visual and spatial judgment Characteristics People with visual-spatial intelligence: · Read and write for enjoyment · Are good at putting puzzles together · Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well · Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts · Recognize patterns easily Potential Career Choices If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Architect · Artist · Engineer 2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.1 Strengths Words, language, and writing Characteristics People with linguistic-verbal intelligence: · Remember written and spoken information · Enjoy reading and writing · Debate or give persuasive speeches · Are able to explain things well · Use humour when telling stories Potential Career Choices If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Writer/journalist · Lawyer · Teacher 3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.4 Strengths Analyzing problems and mathematical operations Characteristics People with logical-mathematical intelligence: · Have excellent problem-solving skills · Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas · Like conducting scientific experiments · Can solve complex computations Potential Career Choices If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Scientist · Mathematician · Computer programmer · Engineer · Accountant 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity. Strengths Physical movement, motor control Characteristics People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: · Are skilled at dancing and sports · Enjoy creating things with his or her hands · Have excellent physical coordination · Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing Potential Career Choices If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Dancer · Builder · Sculptor · Actor 5. Musical Intelligence People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance. Strengths Rhythm and music Characteristics People with musical intelligence: · Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments · Recognize musical patterns and tones easily · Remember songs and melodies · Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes Potential Career Choices If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Musician · Composer · Singer · Music teacher · Conductor 6. Interpersonal Intelligence Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them. Strengths Understanding and relating to other people Characteristics People with interpersonal intelligence: · Communicate well verbally · Are skilled at nonverbal communication · See situations from different perspectives · Create positive relationships with others · Resolve conflicts in group settings Potential Career Choices If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Psychologist · Philosopher · Counselor · Salesperson · Politician 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths. Strengths Introspection and self-reflection Characteristics People with intrapersonal intelligence: · Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well · Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas · Have excellent self-awareness · Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings Potential Career Choices If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Philosopher · Writer · Theorist · Scientist 8. Naturalistic Intelligence Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner‘s theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments. Strengths Finding patterns and relationships to nature Characteristics People with naturalistic intelligence: · Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology · Categorize and catalog information easily · Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors · Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature Potential Career Choices If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are: · Biologist · Conservationist · Gardener · Farmer Some questions to address on your own are: What are you smart on? What evidence do you have that made you reach that decision? What do others say aboutyour smart/s? Topic 2: Social Intelligence in relation to Engineering Introduction Internationally it has been witnessed that engineering students need more skills than engineering education. Competitive graduates require relevant skills that has honed them to be dynamic and function effectively in the workplace and society. Lack of Social Intelligence skills, also known as Social Intelligence quotient (SI) skills in students affect their performance and has been regarded to be leading to higher drop-out rates and poor quality of the engineering. Recent literature emphasizes a need for engineering to integrate necessary non-engineering skills such as SI and emotional intelligence (EI) skills. These two are closely related and tend to be confused. However, there’s a thin line between them. Research, professional bodies and experts have identified that the graduate engineer requires many skills and a great deal of knowledge when entering the workforce. Crucial elements such as interpersonal skills, as well as teamwork and a strong sense of motivation are regarded to be particularly relevant in this era of globalization, occurring in a dynamic speed and dictates environment in which the modern engineer must interact. Real Engineering and RealLife The heavy traditionalism of many courses have the perspective of teaching only real engineering especially, defining and isolating problems and achieving technical solutions. Exposure to this culture of traditionalist engineering education not only discourages reflection, but also generates future engineers who both lack and do not appreciate the value of the skills of reflection. Along with that, do engineering studies actively discourage the ESI factor by the very nature of the traditionalist style of teaching in this field? Such traditionalist teaching imparts engineering as a discipline rather than as a career. The Evolution of EngineeringEducation Overtime, engineering has progressively become less and less of a stand-alone subject. Other disciplines have influenced and became increasingly integrated in engineering curricula in order to increase the sharpness of a university‘s graduates, thereby responding to industry demands, e.g. management, business strategy, marketing, philosophy, communication, ethics, environmentalism, sustainability, etc. Engineers‘ attitudes to the soft skills area, incorporating people, ideas and self- reflection, have to be tackled at a fundamental level. Universities along employers have identified necessary skills that need to be integrated into the curricula. These are complemented with abilities that are valued by both universities and particularly employers, and they include some of the following: · Self- and context-awareness. · Decision-making and action planning. · Research and analysis. · Communication skills. · Critical reflection. · Problem solving · Creativity Cognisant of the fact that, the above-mentioned soft skills are part of engineering profession (engineering skills necessary in the fields of engineering) these characteristics can be effectively incorporated as parts of the elements of SI/ESI. These are subjects in humanities that have been regarded to play an active role in the education of future engineers who can reflect and display sensitivity to both individuals and society. Create the Future Socially intelligent engineers have the opportunity to manifest future changes and actively create the future. Indeed, Cooper and Sawaf state that: ... successfully intelligent leaders and managers continually question many of the assumptions that others accept ... [and] they challenge it perceiving the deeper risks and limitations, and in many cases find ways to transcend it ... They know the future is not something we wait for; it is something we must actively help create. And emotional intelligence plays a vital role. Social intelligence Unit 1

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1. Parts of a Drama A.Plot - contains the story and the events that are to unfold -timelines,sequence,flows,events - exposition,rising action,climax,falling action,denouement a.Exposition -introduces the characters,settings,and other things b.Rising Action -where the conflict is introduced and grows through time c.Climax -where the characters face the problem face-to-face,the most exciting partd.Falling Action -where the characters start to solve the problem e.Denouement -the ending;in movies,where the credits start - also called epilogue B.Characters -the ones that move the action of the play - have their own distinct personaliy,age,appearance,beliefs, socio-economic background,and language (characterization) a. Different Types of Characters in Literature - can be characterized according to roles,archetypes,assigned in a fiction ·Character Types in Stories: 1.Protagonist -main character 2.Antagonist -villain of the story 3.Love Interest -love interest 4.Confidant - best friend or sidekick of the protagonist 5.Deuteragonists -characters that often overlap with confidants 6.Tertiary Characters - populate the world of the story but do not necessarily to the main storyline7.Foil Character -instrument that brings out the protagonist's personality ·Character Types in Fiction: 1.Dynamic Character -changes over the course of a story -can have changes i personality,etc. 2.Round Character -major character who flows fluidity and the capacity for change from themoment we meet them 3.Static/Flat Character - does not noticeably change over the course of a story 4.Stock Character -archetypal characters with a fixed set of personality traits 5.Symbolic Character -represents a concept or theme larger than themselves -may also be other character types ·Character Archetypes (Carl Jung): 1.The Lover - romantic lead who's guided by the heart 2.The Hero -the protagonist who rises to meet a challenge and saves the day3.The Magician - a powerful figure who has hamessed the ways of the universe to achievetheir goals 4.The Outlaw -the rebel who won't abide by society's demands - can be a bad guy, but not always 5.The Explorer - a character naturally driven to push boundaries and find what's next6.The Sage 7.The Innocent - morally pure characters, often a child, whose only intentions aregood8.The Creator - motivated visionary who creates art or structures during the narrative9.The Ruler - a character with legal or cmotional power over others10.The Caregiver - character who continually supports others and makes sacrifices on theirbehalf 11.The Everyman -relatablc character who feels recognizable from daily life12.The Jester -intentionally funny character who provides comic relief but may alsospeak important truths C.Theme -central idea of the play -subject matter D.Language/Diction -word choices made by the playwright and how the actors play out theirscripts E.Music/Rhythm mean the aspects of the melody and music compositions as wit musicaltheatre F.Spectacle -involves the aspct of scenery, costumes, and special effects in aproduction - visual effects of the play II.Notable Theater Groups in the Philippines 1.Tanghalang Pilipino 3.Repertory Philippines Foundation Incorporated 4.Gantimpala Theater Foundation III.Situation of Drama in the Philippines -Though the Philippines is slowly gaining global recognition due to itsquality, it's slowly losing number due to inadequate support from anaudience and the government. - "Unless it was free, it was hard to take the audience in" Lesson 2: Approaches to Analyzing a Drama Terms Theater Critique: - paper that contains a formal, written discussion of a performance of amusical or a play Literary Criticism: -analyzing a piece,whether prose or poem I.Approaches in Analyzing Literature 1.Formalistic - stressed items like symbols, images, and structure, and how one part ofthe work relates to other parts and the whole - focuses on symbolism and other literary parts 2.Philosophical -focuses on themes,the view ofthe world,moral statements,and theauthor's philosophy 3.Biographical -aims to find the connection between the piece and the author's backgroundand personal experiences 4.Historical - connection of the work to the historical period in which it was written -literary historians attempt to connect the historical background of thework to specific aspects of the work 5.Psychological -focuses on the psychological approach -wise figure with knowledge for those who inquire

Here are the answers to your biology questions: 1. Definitions: * Metabolism: The sum total of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism. * Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. * Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input. * Endergonic Reaction: A reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. * Exergonic Reaction: A reaction that releases energy. 2. Role of Enzymes in Metabolism: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. They bind to specific substrates, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, and catalyze the reaction. This allows metabolic processes to occur at rates compatible with life. 3. Enzyme Activity: * Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur. * Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process. * Active Site: The specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds. * Denaturation: The loss of an enzyme's shape and function, often due to extreme temperature or pH. * Substrate: The molecule upon which an enzyme acts. * Enzyme-Substrate Complex: A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate. * Suffix -ase: Commonly used to denote enzymes, such as sucrase, protease, and lipase. 4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions in Cellular Respiration: In cellular respiration, oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons and hydrogen ions. Oxidation is the loss of electrons (and often hydrogen atoms), while reduction is the gain of electrons (and often hydrogen atoms). Energy is released during these reactions and is used to produce ATP. 5. Balanced Equation for Cellular Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP) 6. Structure of a Mitochondrion: * Outer Membrane: Encloses the mitochondrion. * Inner Membrane: Folded into cristae, increasing surface area for ATP production. * Intermembrane Space: The space between the outer and inner membranes. * Matrix: The fluid-filled space inside the inner membrane, containing enzymes for the citric acid cycle. 7. Glycolysis: Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules. 8. Citric Acid Cycle: The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. It completely oxidizes pyruvate, producing 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH₂ molecules per glucose molecule. 9. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation: The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ are transferred through the chain, releasing energy that is used to pump protons into the intermembrane space. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis through ATP synthase. 10. ATP and NADH Production: * Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH * Citric Acid Cycle: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂ * Electron Transport Chain: ~32 ATP (from NADH and FADH₂) 11. Structure and Function of a Dicot Leaf: Dicot leaves are typically broad and flat, with a network of veins. They have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, stomata for gas exchange, and mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts for photosynthesis. 12. Structure of a Chloroplast: * Thylakoid: A flattened, disc-shaped sac. * Thylakoid Membrane: The membrane surrounding the thylakoid. * Thylakoid Space: The interior of the thylakoid. * Stroma: The fluid-filled space outside the thylakoids. * Grana: Stacks of thylakoids. 13. Site of Light-Dependent and Light-Independent Reactions: * Light-Dependent Reactions: Thylakoid membrane * Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle): Stroma 14. Balanced Equation for Photosynthesis: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ * Carbon (C) from CO₂ is incorporated into glucose. * Hydrogen (H) from water (H₂O) is incorporated into glucose. * Oxygen (O) from water is released as O₂. 15. Dual Nature of Light: Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. As a wave, it has a wavelength and frequency. As a particle, it consists of photons, discrete packets of energy. 16. Light Reactions: Light energy is absorbed by pigments in photosystems I and II, exciting electrons. These electrons are transferred through a series of electron carriers, generating ATP and NADPH. Water is split, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. 17. Calvin Cycle: The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to fix CO₂ from the atmosphere. CO₂ is incorporated into RuBP, forming 3-PGA. 3-PGA is reduced to G3P, which can be used to synthesize glucose or regenerate RuBP. 18. Role of Photosynthetic Pigments: Photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction center of photosystems. 19. Role of Photosystems: Photosystems I and II are protein complexes containing pigments and electron carriers. They absorb light energy and use it to excite electrons, initiating the electron transport chain. 20. Phases of the Calvin Cycle: * Carbon Fixation: CO₂ is fixed to RuBP, forming 3-PGA. * Reduction: 3-PGA is reduced to G3P using ATP and NADPH. * Regeneration of RuBP: G3P is used to regenerate RuBP, allowing the cycle to continue. 21. ATP, NADPH, and CO₂ Requirements: * To produce 1 G3P molecule: 9 ATP, 6 NADPH, and 3 CO₂ * To produce 1 glucose molecule: 18 ATP, 12 NADPH, and 6 CO₂ I

1. Molecular Forms and Their Functions in Photosynthesis Photosynthesis involves various molecular structures, each contributing to different stages of the process. The key molecular components involved in photosynthesis include: Chlorophyll: A pigment responsible for absorbing light energy, primarily in the blue and red wavelengths, and reflecting green light. Water (H₂O): Used in the light reactions, where it is split to provide electrons and protons (hydrogen ions). Carbon dioxide (CO₂): The source of carbon for the synthesis of glucose, incorporated in the Calvin cycle. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): The energy currency produced in the light reactions and used in the Calvin cycle. NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate): An electron carrier produced in the light reactions, used in the Calvin cycle for the reduction of CO₂. These molecules work in tandem to capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy, which is stored in the bonds of glucose. 2. Roles of Molecular Structures in Photosynthesis The key molecular structures in photosynthesis—chlorophyll, ATP, NADPH, and enzymes—are crucial for energy capture, conversion, and storage in plants. Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and drives the conversion of water into oxygen and electrons during the light reactions. ATP and NADPH are produced in these reactions and are then used in the Calvin cycle to synthesize sugars from carbon dioxide. 3. What is Photosynthesis? Why is it Important? Definition: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose (a form of sugar) and oxygen, using chlorophyll as the primary pigment. Importance: Photosynthesis is fundamental for life on Earth because it: Provides the oxygen necessary for cellular respiration in most organisms. Serves as the foundation of the food chain, producing organic compounds (like glucose) that form the base of energy for almost all living things. Helps regulate atmospheric CO₂ levels, thereby contributing to climate balance. 4. Theoretical Origins of the Chloroplast Chloroplasts are believed to have evolved from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) through a process called endosymbiosis. This theory suggests that an ancient eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote (cyanobacterium), which then became a permanent part of the host cell. Over time, the engulfed cyanobacterium evolved into the modern chloroplast, retaining its own DNA and two membranes, which are characteristic of bacteria. 5. Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place? In What Type of Cells? Location: Photosynthesis primarily takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Cell Type: Photosynthetic cells are typically found in mesophyll cells in the leaves of plants. These cells contain a high concentration of chloroplasts, which are essential for capturing light energy. 6. Structures of the Chloroplast Stroma: The fluid-filled interior of the chloroplast, which contains enzymes involved in the Calvin cycle (dark reactions). Granum: Stacks of thylakoids, which are the sites of the light reactions. Thylakoid: Membrane-bound structures within the chloroplast that contain chlorophyll and other pigments necessary for light absorption. Thylakoid Space/Lumen: The interior space within each thylakoid where protons (H⁺) accumulate during the light reactions. Inner and Outer Membranes: The double membrane structure that surrounds the chloroplast, with the outer membrane being more permeable than the inner membrane. 7. What is Chlorophyll? Where is it Found in the Chloroplast? Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy necessary for photosynthesis. There are two main types: chlorophyll a (primary pigment) and chlorophyll b (which assists chlorophyll a by capturing additional light wavelengths). Location in the Chloroplast: Chlorophyll is embedded in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. The thylakoids are where light absorption and energy conversion occur. 8. Chemical Reaction of Photosynthesis The general chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2​+6H2​O+light energy→C6​H12​O6​+6O2​ Inputs: Carbon dioxide (CO₂): From the air. Water (H₂O): From the soil. Light energy: Captured by chlorophyll from sunlight. Outputs: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A sugar that stores chemical energy. Oxygen (O₂): A byproduct, released into the atmosphere. 9. Light Reactions of Photosynthesis Location: The light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes. Inputs: Light energy (photons) Water (H₂O) Outputs: ATP (energy carrier) NADPH (electron carrier) Oxygen (O₂) as a byproduct In the light reactions, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, which excites electrons. These electrons are passed through the electron transport chain (ETC), leading to the production of ATP and NADPH. Water is split to replace the excited electrons, producing oxygen as a byproduct. 10. Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions) Location: The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. Inputs: CO₂ (from the atmosphere) ATP (from the light reactions) NADPH (from the light reactions) Outputs: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) or other sugars that can be used for energy or stored as starch. In the Calvin cycle, carbon dioxide is fixed into an organic molecule through a series of reactions involving the enzyme RuBisCO. ATP and NADPH are used to reduce this organic molecule into sugars. 11. The Original Source of Electrons in Photosynthesis The original source of electrons in photosynthesis is water (H₂O). During the light reactions, water molecules are split by the enzyme photosystem II, releasing electrons, protons, and oxygen. The electrons are passed through the electron transport chain to ultimately reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH. 12. Difference Between Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle Light Reactions: Energy Source: Light energy from the sun. Major Outputs: ATP, NADPH, and O₂. Location: Thylakoid membranes. Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions): Energy Source: ATP and NADPH produced during the light reactions. Major Output: Glucose (or other carbohydrates). Location: Stroma. The Calvin cycle is often called the "dark reactions" because it does not require light directly; instead, it uses the ATP and NADPH generated in the light reactions to power the fixation of carbon and the synthesis of sugars. 13. Carbon Fixation in Photosynthesis Carbon fixation refers to the process by which carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere is incorporated into an organic molecule. In photosynthesis, this occurs during the Calvin cycle, where CO₂ is attached to a 5-carbon molecule called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), catalyzed by the enzyme RuBisCO. This process creates a 6-carbon intermediate that is quickly split into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), which are then converted into sugars through a series of reactions. Summary Photosynthesis is essential for life, providing oxygen and forming the basis of the food chain. It occurs in the chloroplasts within plant cells, primarily in the mesophyll cells of leaves. Light reactions capture solar energy and convert it into ATP and NADPH, while releasing O₂. The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO₂ and synthesize glucose. Chlorophyll, water, ATP, and NADPH play key roles in harnessing and storing energy during photosynthesis. 1. Chloroplast and Chlorophyll – Differentiate Chloroplast: Definition: Organelles in plant and algal cells where photosynthesis occurs. They contain the necessary machinery for converting light energy into chemical energy (glucose). Structure: Chloroplasts have an outer membrane, an inner membrane, a stroma (fluid-filled space), and thylakoids (membrane-bound structures where light reactions take place). Function: Sites for both the light-dependent reactions (in thylakoid membranes) and the Calvin cycle (in the stroma). Chlorophyll: Definition: A green pigment found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts that absorbs light for photosynthesis. Function: Absorbs light, primarily in the red (~680 nm) and blue (~450 nm) regions of the spectrum, and reflects green light (~500-550 nm), which is why plants appear green. 2. Photon and Wavelength – Define Photon: Definition: A particle of light or electromagnetic radiation. Photons carry energy and are absorbed by chlorophyll during photosynthesis. The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength: shorter wavelengths carry more energy. Wavelength: Definition: The distance between successive crests of a wave, typically measured in nanometers (nm) for light. Different wavelengths correspond to different colors of light in the visible spectrum. 3. Wavelengths of Certain Colors of Light ~400 nm: Violet ~500 nm: Green (around this wavelength, light is least absorbed by chlorophyll, so it is reflected, contributing to the green color of leaves). ~550 nm: Yellow-Green ~600 nm: Orange ~700 nm: Red (longer wavelengths like red are absorbed by chlorophyll but used less efficiently for photosynthesis compared to blue light). 4. The 3 Different Pigments in Photosynthesis There are three main types of pigments involved in photosynthesis: Chlorophyll a: Characterization: The primary pigment involved in photosynthesis. It absorbs light mostly in the red and blue wavelengths (~430-450 nm and ~640-680 nm). Function: Directly involved in the light reactions, where it absorbs photons and starts the process of electron transport. Chlorophyll b: Characterization: An accessory pigment that absorbs light in the blue and red-orange regions (~460-500 nm and ~640-660 nm). Function: Helps chlorophyll a by expanding the absorption spectrum and capturing more light energy. Carotenoids (e.g., Beta-carotene): Characterization: Accessory pigments that absorb light in the blue and blue-green wavelengths (~450-480 nm) and appear yellow, orange, or red. Function: Protects chlorophyll by absorbing excess light energy (photoprotection) and transferring energy to chlorophyll. 5. What Wavelengths and Colors are Absorbed and Used in Photosynthesis? Absorbed: Chlorophyll absorbs primarily in the blue (around 430-450 nm) and red (around 640-680 nm) regions of the light spectrum. Why Green?: Chlorophyll reflects and transmits green light (~500-570 nm), which is why leaves appear green to us. The green light is not absorbed efficiently by chlorophyll and is thus reflected, giving leaves their characteristic color. 6. Photosystem, Light-harvesting Complex, Reaction Center, Primary Electron Acceptor – Relate and Explain Photosystem: Definition: A protein-pigment complex in the thylakoid membrane that absorbs light energy and uses it to initiate the process of photosynthesis. Light-harvesting Complex (LHC): Definition: A group of pigments (such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that surround the reaction center in the photosystem. They absorb light and transfer energy to the reaction center. Function: Captures light energy and funnels it to the reaction center. Reaction Center: Definition: The part of the photosystem where the energy from light is converted into chemical energy. It contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules that absorb energy and release excited electrons. Primary Electron Acceptor: Definition: A molecule that accepts the excited electrons from the reaction center, starting the electron transport chain in the light reactions. It is the first step in converting light energy into chemical energy. These components work together in the light reactions: Light energy is absorbed by the light-harvesting complex. This energy is transferred to the reaction center. The reaction center chlorophyll molecules become excited, and an electron is transferred to the primary electron acceptor. The electron is then passed through the electron transport chain, where it eventually helps generate ATP and NADPH. 7. Photosystem II and Photosystem I – Compare and Contrast Photosystem II (PSII): Function: Splits water molecules (photolysis) to release oxygen, protons (H⁺), and electrons. The electrons from water are passed through the electron transport chain to Photosystem I. Key Feature: It is the first photosystem in the light reactions and operates at a wavelength of around 680 nm. Photosystem I (PSI): Function: Absorbs light energy and re-excites electrons, which are used to reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH. Key Feature: Operates at a wavelength of around 700 nm, slightly higher than PSII. Similarities: Both are involved in the light-dependent reactions and contain reaction centers with chlorophyll a. Differences: PSII begins the process by splitting water and producing oxygen. PSI primarily produces NADPH from the excited electrons it receives from PSII. 8. Linear Electron Flow – Process Description Electron Sourcing: The process begins when light excites chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem II. This causes water to split, releasing electrons, protons (H⁺), and O₂. The electrons are passed through the electron transport chain (ETC) to Photosystem I. Energy-Rich Molecules: As electrons travel through the ETC, they provide energy to pump protons into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient. This gradient is used by ATP synthase to generate ATP. Meanwhile, the electrons in PSI are re-excited by light and used to reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH. Outcome: The process generates both ATP and NADPH, which are used in the Calvin cycle for the synthesis of sugars. 9. Linear vs. Cyclical Electron Flow Linear Electron Flow: Process: Electrons flow from Photosystem II to Photosystem I, ultimately producing both ATP and NADPH. Generates: ATP and NADPH. Cyclical Electron Flow: Process: Electrons from PSI are cycled back through the electron transport chain, without reducing NADP⁺. Instead, they return to PSI to continue the flow of electrons. Generates: More ATP, but no NADPH or oxygen. Difference: Cyclical flow is used when the cell needs more ATP than NADPH, such as in some parts of the Calvin cycle. 10. Cellular Respiration vs. Photosynthesis Similarities: Both involve energy conversion processes. Both produce energy carriers: ATP in both processes, and NADH in respiration and NADPH in photosynthesis. Both processes involve electron transport chains. Differences: Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy (glucose), occurring in chloroplasts. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose to release energy (ATP), occurring in mitochondria. Photosynthesis requires light, whereas cellular respiration does not. The products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) are used as inputs in cellular respiration (glucose and oxygen), while the products of cellular respiration (CO₂ and water) are inputs for photosynthesis. 11. The Calvin Cycle – Major Inputs, Processes, and Outputs Inputs: CO₂ from the atmosphere (fixed into an organic molecule). ATP and NADPH from the light reactions. Major Process of Energy Usage: Carbon Fixation: CO₂ is attached to RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) by the enzyme RuBisCO. Reduction: ATP and NADPH are used to convert the fixed carbon into a 3-carbon sugar (G3P). Regeneration: Some G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP, enabling the cycle to continue. Major Outputs: Glucose or other carbohydrates, which store chemical energy for the plant. 12. Importance of the Molecule RuBisCO (Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase) Definition: RuBisCO is the enzyme that catalyzes the carbon fixation step in the Calvin cycle, attaching CO₂ to RuBP. Importance: It is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and is crucial for producing the organic molecules necessary for plant growth and, by extension, all life on Earth. Without RuBisCO, plants would not be able to synthesize glucose from CO₂.

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Renaissance and Reformation Vocabulary (all words can be found in the textbook glossary) Renaissance: A period of European history lasting from about 1300 to 1600 during wich renewed interest in classical culture led to far reaching changes in art, leading, and views of the world. Humanism: Renaissance intellectual movement in wich thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential achievements. Secular: Connected with worldly rather than spiritual matters Patron: A person who suports artists, especially fainancially Perspective: An artistic technique that creates the appearance of three dimension on a flat surface Vernacular: Everyday language of people in region or country. Johann Gutenberg - developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way. Reformation: A 16th century movement movement for religious reform leading to the founding of Christain churches that rejected peoples authority. Indulgence: Realising a person from punishments due for a sin Protestant: A member of a Christan church founded on the principles of the reformation Peace of Augsburg: Agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided bt it’s ruler Predestination: The doctrine that God has decided all things beforehand including wich people will be eternally saved. Theocracy: Government controlled by religious leaders. Jesuit: Members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola Council of Trent: A meeting of Roman catholic leaders called by Pope Paul lll to rule on doctrines criticzed by the Protestant reformers.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (Er) Plays A Key Role In The Modification Osince The Rough Er Helps Modify Proteins That Will Be Secreted From The Cell, Cells Whose Job Is To Secrete Large Amounts Of Enzymes Or Other Proteins, Such As Liver Cells, Have Lots Of Rough Er. Smooth Er The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth Er) Is Continuous With The Rough Er But Has Few Or No Ribosomes On Its Cytoplasmic Surface. Functions Of The Smooth Er Include: Synthesis Of Carbohydrates, Lipids, And Steroid Hormones Detoxification Of Medications And Poisons Storage Of Calcium Ions In Muscle Cells, A Special Type Of Smooth Er Called The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Is Responsible For Storage Of Calcium Ions Which Are Needed To Trigger The Coordinated Contractions Of Muscle Fibers. There Are Also Tiny "Smooth" Patches Of Er Found Within The Rough Er. These Patches Serve As Exit Sites For Vesicles Budding Off From The Rough Er And Are Called Transitional Er . The Golgi Apparatus When Vesicles Bud Off From The Er, Where Do They Go? Before Reaching Their Final Destination, The Lipids And Proteins In The Transport Vesicles Need To Be Sorted, Packaged, And Tagged So That They Wind Up In The Right Place. This Sorting, Tagging, Packaging, And Distribution Takes Place In The Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body), An Organelle Made Up Of Flattened Discs Of Membrane. Micrograph Of The Golgi Apparatus Showing A Series Of Flattened Membrane Discs In Cross-Section _image Credit: "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 3" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0), Modification Of Work By Lousia Howard_ The Receiving Side Of The Golgi Apparatus Is Called The Cis Face And The Opposite Side Is Called The Trans Face. Transport Vesicles From The Er Travel To The Cis Face, Fuse With It, And Empty Their Contents Into The Lumen Of The Golgi Apparatus. As Proteins And Lipids Travel Through The Golgi, They Undergo Further Modifications. Short Chains Of Sugar Molecules Might Be Added Or Removed, Or Phosphate Groups Attached As Tags. Carbohydrate Processing Is Shown In The Diagram As The Gain And Loss Of Branches On The Purple Carbohydrate Group Attached To The Protein. Image Showing Transport Of A Membrane Protein From The Rough Er Through The Golgi To The Plasma Membrane. The Protein Is Initially Modified By The Addition Of Branching Carbohydrate Chains In The Rough Er; These Chains Are Then Trimmed Back And Replaced With Other Branching Chains In The Golgi Apparatus. The Protein, With Its Final Set Of Carbohydrate Chains, Is Then Transported To The Plasma Membrane In A Transport Vesicle. The Vesicle Fuses With The Plasma Membrane, Its Lipids And Protein Cargo Becoming Part Of The Plasma Membrane. _image Modified From "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 1" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0), Modification Of Work By Magnus Manske_ Finally, The Modified Proteins Are Sorted (Based On Markers Such As Amino Acid Sequences And Chemical Tags) And Packaged Into Vesicles That Bud From The Trans Face Of The Golgi. Some Of These Vesicles Deliver Their Contents To Other Parts Of The Cell Where They Will Be Used, Such As The Lysosome Or Vacuole. Others Fuse With The Plasma Membrane, Delivering Membrane-Anchored Proteins That Function There And Releasing Secreted Proteins Outside The Cell. Cells That Secrete Many Proteins—Such As Salivary Gland Cells That Secrete Digestive Enzymes, Or Cells Of The Immune System That Secrete Antibodies—Have Many Golgi Stacks. In Plant Cells, The Golgi Apparatus Also Makes Polysaccharides (Long-Chain Carbohydrates), Some Of Which Are Incorporated Into The Cell Wall. Lysosomes The Lysosome Is An Organelle That Contains Digestive Enzymes And Acts As The Organelle-Recycling Facility Of An Animal Cell. It Breaks Down Old And Unnecessary Structures So Their Molecules Can Be Reused. Lysosomes Are Part Of The Endomembrane System, And Some Vesicles That Leave The Golgi Are Bound For The Lysosome. Lysosomes Can Also Digest Foreign Particles That Are Brought Into The Cell From Outside. As An Example, Let'S Consider A Class Of White Blood Cells Called Macrophages, Which Are Part Of The Human Immune System. In A Process Known As Phagocytosis, A Section Of The Macrophage’S Plasma Membrane Invaginates—Folds Inward—To Engulf A Pathogen, As Shown Below. Diagram Of Phagocytosis, In Which The Phagosome Generated By Engulfment Of A Particle Fuses With A Lysosome, Allowing Digestion Of The Particle. _image Credit: Modified From "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 4" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0)_ The Invaginated Section, With The Pathogen Inside, Pinches Off From The Plasma Membrane To Form A Structure Called A Phagosome. The Phagosome Then Fuses With A Lysosome, Forming A Combined Compartment Where Digestive Enzymes Destroy The Pathogen. Vacuoles Plants Cells Are Unique Because They Have A Lysosome-Like Organelle Called The Vacuole. The Large Central Vacuole Stores Water And Wastes, Isolates Hazardous Materials, And Has Enzymes That Can Break Down Macromolecules And Cellular Components, Like Those Of A Lysosome. Plant Vacuoles Also Function In Water Balance And May Be Used To Store Compounds Such As Toxins And Pigments (Colored Particles). Lysosomes Vs. Peroxisomes One Point That Can Be Confusing Is The Difference Between Lysosomes And Peroxisomes. Both Types Of Organelles Are Involved In Breaking Down Molecules And Neutralizing Hazards To The Cell. Also, Both Usually Show Up As Small, Round Blobs In Diagrams. However, The Peroxisome Is A Different Organelle With Its Own Unique Properties And Role In The Cell. It Houses Enzymes Involved In Oxidation Reactions, Which Produce Hydrogen Peroxide ( ) As A By-Product. The Enzymes Break Down Fatty Acids And Amino Acids, And They Also Detoxify Some Substances That Enter The Body. For Example, Alcohol Is Detoxified By Peroxisomes Found In Liver Cells. Importantly, Peroxisomes—Unlike Lysosomes—Are Not Part Of The Endomembrane System. That Means They Don'T Receive Vesicles From The Golgi Apparatus. You Can Learn More About How Proteins Are Shipped To The Peroxisome In The Article On Protein Targeting.F Proteins And The Synthesis Of Lipids. It Consists Of A Network Of Membranous Tubules And Flattened Sacs. The Discs And Tubules Of The Er Are Hollow, And The Space Inside Is Called The Lumen. Rough Er The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough Er) Gets Its Name From The Bumpy Ribosomes Attached To Its Cytoplasmic Surface. As These Ribosomes Make Proteins, They Feed The Newly Forming Protein Chains Into The Lumen. Some Are Transferred Fully Into The Er And Float Inside, While Others Are Anchored In The Membrane. Inside The Er, The Proteins Fold And Undergo Modifications, Such As The Addition Of Carbohydrate Side Chains. These Modified Proteins Will Be Incorporated Into Cellular Membranes—The Membrane Of The Er Or Those Of Other Organelles—Or Secreted From The Cell. If The Modified Proteins Are Not Destined To Stay In The Er, They Will Be Packaged Into Vesicles, Or Small Spheres Of Membrane That Are Used For Transport, And Shipped To The Golgi Apparatus. The Rough Er Also Makes Phospholipids For Other Cellular Membranes, Which Are Transported When The Vesicle Forms.

Chapter 12 Study Guide Vocabulary: Incorporate, Municipality, Charter, Home Rule, Ordinance, Strong-Mayor System, Weak-Mayor System, Wards, At-Large Election, Special District, Metropolitan Area, Suburb, County, County Seat, Town, Town Meeting, Township, Village, User Fee Lesson 1: City/Municipal Government U.S. Now Mostly Urban, 75%. Besides Cities, There Are Several Types Of Municipalities, Or Incorporated Places, With Governments And Services Provided To Residents. Cities – Largest Municipality; Have One Of Three Main Forms Of Government: Council-Mayor Form 🡪 With Either Strong Or Weak Mayor (Look Over Your Diagrams In Your Notes Or The Book); Strong-Mayor System Preferred By Cities, Towns, Boroughs – Mayor Is Head Of Executive Branch With Appointment Power Over Dept. Hds; Council Heads The Legislative Branch; Mayor Controls Day-To-Day Government, Has Veto Power Over Council, Can Be Overridden By Council. Council Members Elected Within Individual Wards, Or Voting Districts, And Some Are Members At-Large (Elected By Whole Community) In Order To Represent The Entire Community. Council-Manager Form 🡪 See Diagram In Notes Or Book For Description – Many Municipalities Now Have A Full-Time, Hired “Administrator” To Handle Day-To-Day Affairs. Commission Form 🡪 See Diagram In Notes Or Book For Description. This Is Rp’S Form! Remember…Combines Legislative And Executive Power In One Group. Mayor Is Elected From, And Is One Of, The Commissioners. Flaws: Sometimes Seen As Inefficient, With No Clear Leadership, And Conflicting Goals Among Areas That Commissioners Oversee With Absolute Power. No Clear Checks And Balances, Either! Because Of Home Rule, Other Types Of Municipalities Like Villages, Towns, Townships, And Boroughs Can Choose From One Of The Three Traditionally “City” Forms Above, Or Some Variation As Allowed By State Law. Example: Some Have “Weak” Mayors, With Councils Handling Most Legislative And Executive Functions; Other Units Of Government 🡪 A. Special Districts (Ex: School – Most Common; Fire; Water); B. Metropolitan Councils That Sometimes Create Units Like The Port Authority Of Ny And Nj. Lesson 2: County Government Know The Name Of Your County, The Number Of Nj Counties, The Title Of The Elected Head Of The Executive Branch, And The Name Of The 7-Member Board That Is The Legislative Branch. Know The Six Main Additional County Positions We Described In Notes. Lesson 3: Towns, Townships, And Villages Towns – Oldest Form In U.S.; New England Example Is The Oldest; Began As “Direct Democracy” With Regular Town Meetings; Now Uses Mainly Selectmen In New England, And Council-Mayor System Elsewhere; Towns Now Usually Have A Strong-Mayor Plan. Townships – Original Nj Form; Now Second To The “Borough” In Nj; Very Popular In South, West; Western States Began As 36-Square Mile Townships With Central Government; Later Divided Up Into Smaller Units With Their Own Governments As Settlers Moved In; Usually Bigger Than Towns. Village – Smallest Unit; Forms Usually Within A Larger Township Or County To Provide Their Own Services; True Villages Usually Have A Board Of Trustees And President; Only One True Village Left In Nj (Fyi: Township Of South Orange Village); Often Have Higher Taxes In Exchange For Higher Status.

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