AP Psych Unit 4 - Learning

Learning Unit

Conditioning

behavioral responses learned by association; application of associative memory to create learned relationships between a stimulus and a behavior

Stimulus

the cause or modifier of a behavior

Behavior

responsive actions of stimuli

Classical Conditioning (CC)

the process of learning when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with the natural cause of behavior and creates a similar or related response; doesn’t change the behavior but creates an alternate learned cause

Ivan Pavlov

he created the foundation of CC

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

any natural stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

the automatic (unlearned) behavioral reflex of a stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that through sessions of acquisition causes a learned behavior

Conditioned Response (CR)

learned behavior developed in association with the CS

Classical Conditioning Problem Solving Steps

1. Identify the behavior

2. Identify the natural cause of the behavior (UCS)

3. Identify the learned cause (CS)

Extinction

gradual erosion of conditioned behaviors due to a dissociation of CS & UCS; learned association of stimuli becomes broken; CS no longer elicits a CR and reverts back to a meaningless neutral response

Spontaneous Recovery

sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished CR that is displayed following an extended delay in CS presentation

Generalization

CRs that are triggered not only by the CS but also by stimuli that resemble the CS; focusing on similarities among related stimuli / responding with similar behavior

Discrimination

behavioral changes that result from differences between the new stimuli that are otherwise similar to the CS; focusing on differences among related stimuli and responding with different behaviors

Superstition

false and irrational associations of stimuli conditioned through illogical, random coincidence

Taste Aversion

• a learned avoidance of a specific food, not diagnosed as ARFID

• learned association of food & illness

• generally require just 1 acquisition for the behavior to form

Phobias

• irrational fears that lead to avoidance behaviors

• often develop as a result of exaggerated conditioned experiences

John Watson

• notorious for the “Little Albert Experiment”

• the goal of this experiment was to see how phobias can be learned, generalized, and extinguished based upon classical conditioning principles

Behavioral Therapy for Phobias

extinction of fear based upon conditioning principles of disassociation

Flooding

exposure to overwhelming amounts of the fear-provoking stimulus

Systemic Desensitization

gradual exposure to progressive increments of the fear-provoking stimulus in conjunction w/ relaxation techniques

Counter Conditioning

substituting the fearful stimulus with a more appealing CS, so that the phobic response is counteracted / neutralized

Operant Conditioning

learned associations between actions and behavioral consequences; learning in response to trial & error

Behavioral Modifiers

reinforcements or punishments

Classical conditioning changes…

…the stimuli; stimuli are presented before the behavior

Operant conditioning changes…

…the behavior; behavior is presented first and the stimuli follows

Problem Solving Steps for Operant Conditioning

1. Identify the behavior

2. Is the behavior going to continue (reinforcement) or stop (punishment)

3. Has something been added (+) or taken away / avoided (-)

Edward Thorndike

he came up with “The Law of Effect” and the Learning Curve

Law of Effect

when a stimulus receives a positive response the behavior is more likely to be repeated, and when a stimulus receives a negative response the behavior is more likely to happen less frequently

The Learning Curve

things are best learned after 3 trials

Reinforcements

any stimuli added or taken away to make a behavior increase frequency; promotes the likelihood of reoccurance

The Premack Principle

desirable stimuli are effective motivators to modify undesirable behaviors; incentive based learning

Punishments

stimuli added or taken away that will decrease behavioral responses

B.F. Skinner

he adapted Thorndike’s ideas and experiments to include both reinforcements and punishments

Positive Reinforcement

stimuli added so that the frequency of the learned behavior increases

Negative Reinforcement

stimuli taken away or avoided to promote / increase a learned behavior

Positive Punishment

stimuli added that will reduce the behavior

Pacification

addition of a pleasant stimulus to make a behavior stop; results in opposite of desired effect

Negative Punishment

taking away / avoiding a stimulus as means to lessen the reoccurrence of a behavior; usually deprivation of needed or desired stimuli

Continuous Reinforcement

• applying a reinforcement upon the completion of every display of conditioned behavior

• promotes quickest response

• often leads to behavioral dependency and promotes extinction when reinforcement stops

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

• behavior is not reinforced every time but reinforced frequently so that a conditioned behavior develops'

• results in behaviors more resistant to extinction

Reinforcement Schedules Problem Solving Steps

1. Identify behavior

2. Identify basis of reward schedule

   1. time → interval

   2. # of behaviors → ratio

3. Determine if it is

   1. predictable → fixed

   2. unpredictable → variable

Fixed Ratio Schedule

reward is applied after completion of a constant number of behavioral responses

Variable Ratio Schedule

reward is applied after a fluctuating number of behavioral responses

Fixed Interval Schedule

reinforcement is received after a preset, constant amount of time passes upon successful completion of the behavior

Variable Interval Schedules

unpredictable amounts of time pass between completion of the behavior and the reinforcement; results in longer lasting behavior

Shaping

technique of instructing complex behaviors by braking them down into smaller components and applying reinforcement upon the successful completion of each step

Latent Learning

learned behaviors that develop with no direct reinforcement and only tend to appear out of necessity

Edward Tolman

• he did cognitive mapping experiments with mice in mazes

• focused on incentive based behavioral modification

Insight

sudden flash of understanding and problem solving ability

Wolfgang Kohler

• he studied problem solving insight through a series of chimpanzee experiments

Modeling

observational learning; process of learning new behaviors by mimicking the actions of others

Albert Bandura

• he created the Bobo Doll Experiment

• aggressive behavior in children learned via observational modeling

Learning

the process of acquiring through experiencing new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others through language

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without references

Acquisition

in CC, the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus so the neutral stimulus begins to trigger the conditioned response

High Order Conditioning

a process in which a stimulus is first made meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus.

Preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value

Operant Chamber

a chamber containing a bar/key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcement

Discriminative Stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after associations with reinforcement

Primary Reinforcement

a stimulus that causes an automatic or natural response and is essential for survival

Conditioned Reinforcement

when a stimulus becomes a reinforcer because it's associated with a primary reinforcer

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

Insight Learning

solving problems through sudden insight

Mirror Neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform actions or observe another doing so

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Antisocial Behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior