Ap Psych Unit 2

Heredity

Passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another

Theory of Evolution

Helpful traits to survival will be passed on while undesirable traits would die off

Heritability

A mathematical measure to estimate how much variation there is in population related to genes

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature is genetics or biological impact while nurture is environment and influences from how we are raised

Nature Side

Biological, Cognitive, Evolutionary

Nurture Side

Psychodynamic, Behaviorism, Sociocultural

Epigenetics

Study of how environment and person’s behavior affect genes

Plasticity

Structural level of brain to change and reform based on external cues such as environment

Homeostasis

Body’s ability to maintain internal stability

Pituitary Gland

Located at base of brain, connects nervous and endocrine system, regulates other glands in body, works with hypothalamus in GH, oxytocin, and vasopressin

Pineal Gland

Above brainstem in midbrain, helps regulate sleep cycles using melatonin

Thyroid and Parathyroid gland

Located in throat, regulate metabolism, growth, nervous system, controls calcium and phosphate levels in blood, thyroxine, calcitonin

Adrenal Glands

Above kidneys, regulate salt, blood pressure, and oxygen intake, norepinephrine, epinephrine, aldosterone, glucocorticoids

Pancreas

By stomach, regulates sugar levels, insulin and glucagon

Gonads

Ovaries and testes, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

Central Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Different nerves branching from brain and spine

Afferent Neurons

Take sensory information from outside stimuli and send info to brain

Efferent Neurons

Use efferent neurons to send impulses from brain to muscles and glands to move body

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary muscle movement in skeletal muscles and five senses

Autonomic Nervous System

Involuntary actions, keeps you breathing and digesting food

Sympathetic Nervous System

Mobilizes body, initiates ‘fight or flight’ mode makes heart beat faster, eyes dilate, breathing increases

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Relaxes body, slows heart rate, increases digestion and focuses on saving and storing energy

Glial cell

Cells that supports nervous system by providing neurons with nutrients and is most abundant cell in nervous system

Dendrites

Extension of cell body that receive chemical info from adjacent neurons through receptor sites

Nucleus

Contains genetic material including information for cell development, allowing neuron to function

Soma

Cell body that contains nucleus and most organelles

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in myelin sheath where axon is exposed, helps promote continuing action potential

Axon

Longest part of neuron, carries information away from soma to other cells

Myelin Sheath

Insulating layer increasing how fast action potential travels down axon, protects axon

Axon Terminal or Terminal Button

End of axon where neurotransmitters are released into synapse

Schwann Cells

Helps produce myelin sheath

Resting Neuron

More positive ions outside membrane, neuron is polarized and will not send a signal (-70mV)

Depolarization

Strong negative charge of the inside of the cell has enough positive ions so charge changes from -70 to -55 mV, triggers neuron to fire action potential

Action Potential

Neuron fires electrical impulse down axon

Repolarization

Neurons go back to resting potential, channels open up letting positive ions outside cell membrane

Refractory period

Neuron can not fire, neuron is waiting for repolarization to occur, prevents signals being sent in both directions down axon

Permeability

Ability to cross membrane more easily than others

Synapse

Pocket of space between axon terminal and dendrite of two neurons, less than a millionth of an inch

Electrical Synapse

Used for messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately, neuron is typically connected to another

Chemical Synapse

Use neurotransmitters to deliver messages across synaptic gap, takes more time than an electrical synapse

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger sent by a neuron

Synaptic Gap

Space between two neurons, presynaptic terminal of one and postsynaptic terminal of next

Reuptake

Sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters from synapse

Hyperpolarization

Inside of neuron becomes more negative moving it farther away from threshold or intensity for action potential

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning and memory, associated with Alzheimer’s

Dopamine

Helps with movement, learning, attention, emotions, known also as a natural drug because of impact to feelings and emotions, associated with Parkinson’s

Serotonin

Hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

Endorphins

Helps with pain control, brain’s own painkillers

Epinephrine

Same as adrenaline, helps body respond to high emotional situations by increasing blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness, helps form memories

Norepinephrine

Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness

Glutamate

Involved with excitatory messages, long term memory, and learning

GABA

Helps with sleep and movement, slows down nervous system, inhibitory neurotransmitter

Broca’s Area

Responsible for speech production, in frontal lobe, associated with Broca’s Aphasia (expressive aphasia)

Wernicke’s Area

Responsible for speech comprehension, in temporal lobe, associated with Wernicke’s aphasia (receptive aphasia)

Medulla Oblongata

Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, in hindbrain

Pons

Works with cerebellum to coordinate movement and helps coordinate sleep, in hindbrain

Cerebellum

Smooth muscle movements, maintains equilibrium

Brainstem

Contains midbrain, pons, and medulla, controls basic autonomic functions

Spinal Cord

Track of nerve fibers that connects brain to rest of body

Midbrain

Part of brainstem that relays information for visual and auditory systems, has motor and sensory tracts, contains reticular formation and RAS

Reticular Formation

Collection of nerve fibers that tunnel through the brainstem, involved with alertness and arousal

Reticular Activating System

Part of reticular formation for arousal, alertness, and sleep wake cycles

Cerebrum

General term to describe brain, not including brainstem and cerebellum

Cerebral Cortex

Thin layer of gray matter covering entire brain

Corpus Callosum

Tract of nerve fibers longitudinally down center of brain connecting two hemispheres

Frontal Lobe

Involved in higher level thinking and motor functions

Prefrontal Cortex

Front part of cerebral cortex where planning, emotional expression and complex thought occurs, in frontal lobe

Motor Cortex

Part of cortex in frontal lobe that allows for control of voluntary movement

Homunculus

Visual representation that shows how much brain area is devoted to the movement of each body part

Parietal Lobe

Lobe involved in processing sensory stimuli

Somatosensory Cortex

Part of cortex that processes touch sensations , in parietal lobe

Sensory Homunculus

Visual representation that shows how much brain area is devoted to the sensations of each body part, showing how sensitive to stimuli they are

Occipital Lobe

Contains areas that process visual information

Visual Cortex

Part of cortex in occipital lobe processing visual information and sending it to other visual areas

Temporal Lobe

Primarily processes auditory information and is important in memory formation

Angular Gyrus

Area of brain involved in reading and writing in lower part of parietal lobe

Left Brain/Hemisphere

Recognizing words, letters, interpreting language, mathematics, analytical

Right Brain/Hemisphere

Spatial concepts, facial recognition, discerning direction, creativity

Sperry and Gazzinga

Split-brain research

Gage

Railroad worker who was injured by an explosion with rod through frontal lobe, limbic system severely damaged resulting in personality change

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electrodes placed on scalp allowing researchers to record electrical signals from neurons firing, used for sleep and seizures

Computed Tomography (CT)

Series of advanced x-rays of the brain used to locate brain damage, tumors, and more

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Involves injecting a small amount of radioactive glucose into an individual and then tracking the usage of glucose in specific regions of the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Provides detailed picture of brain by using a strong magnetic field to cause molecules to vibrate at different frequencies

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Similar to MRI but shows MRI images in real time when brain is active

Neuroplasticity

Brain can change, modify, or repair itself

Consciousness

Awake and aware of external stimuli and mental activity

Auditory Cortex

Part of cortex that processes auditory information, in temporal lobe

Thalamus

Structure on top of brain stem, in mid brain, serving as a relay station for impulses from body to areas of cerebral cortex

Limbic System

Group of brain structures involved in emotion, learning, memory, and basic drives

Hippocampus

Structure involved in creation of memories and learning, in the temporal lobe and part of limbic system

Amygdala

Structure for emotion, threat/fear perception, and memory, in the temporal lobe and part of limbic system

Hypothalamus

Structure that controls autonomic functions and works with pituitary to control hormones

Nucleus Accumbens

Functions in pleasure reward circuit and reinforcing behaviors

Basal Ganglia

Works with voluntary movement

Psychoactive

Substances used to purposefully alter an individual’s perceptions, consciousness, or mood

Depressants

Drugs that cause drowsiness, muscle relaxation, lowered breathing, or possibly slurred speech

Opioids

Function as a depressant bur are addictive, give pain relief such as morphine, heroin, oxycodone

Stimulants

Drugs that excite and promote neural activity such as caffeine, nicotine, cocaine