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This set contains the notes from Seneca about USA conflict at home and abroad (Paper 3) for Edexcel GCSE History, turned into questions. Key Topic 1 - The development of the civil rights movement, 1954-60: Cards 1-41 Key Topic 2 - Protest, progress and radicalism, 1960-75: Cards 42-76 Key Topic 3 - US involvement in the Vietnam War, 1954-75: Cards 77-107 Key Topic 4 - Reactions to, and the end of, US involvement in Vietnam, 1964-75: Cards 108-133
What was life like for black Americans in the early 1950s?
They faced discrimination and segregation solely because of their race.
What was discrimination in the early 1950s like in the North?
There was discrimination in jobs, education and housing.
Black people were limited to having badly paid jobs, so they could only afford to live in the poorest areas, called ghettos.
What was discrimination in the early 1950s like in the South?
Segregation was enforced by Jim Crow laws.
These separated black and white people in all aspects of life such as education, housing and transport.
Black people could be arrested if they didn't follow these laws.
How could southern states enforce Jim Crow laws?
States could have their own laws, separate from federal (national) laws.
What was racism in the Deep South like?
Many white people saw black people as lazy, stupid and criminal and would not socialise with them in any way.
In the Deep South, policemen and judges were racist; black people could be beaten to confess to crimes they didn't commit or imprisoned for no reason.
Black people were not allowed to sit on juries, and if a black person was murdered it was often not investigated.
How did black Americans help during WW2?
One million black soldiers fought in segregated units.
At home, many worked alongside whites in factories to produce weapons.
What did the US's reliance on its black labour force do during the Cold War?
It embarrassed the US during the Cold War for claiming to be the leader of the free world while still treating their own black citizens so badly.
How were voting rights gradually introduced for black Americans in the early 1950s in the North?
Politicians began to introduce policies that appealed to black people to gain their votes.
What voting rights did southern black Americans have in the early 1950s?
In some parts of the South, black people had gained some voting rights for officials in their segregated communities.
For example, by 1954, 143 towns had black policemen.
In 1956, 20% of black people were registered to vote, up by 17% compared to before WW2.
What methods were there to prevent black people from voting?
Employers threatening to sack workers who tried to vote.
States allowing political parties to 'choose' their members.
States introducing difficult literacy tests for black people.
Gangs beating up black voters outside polling stations.
Some black people who went to court to defend their right to vote were even murdered.
What was the NAACP? What did they do?
The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People focused on fighting for civil rights in law courts to overthrow segregation.
They argued against the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling of 'separate but equal'.
They tried to prove facilities were not equal, and also argued that separate but equal facilities did not mean equal opportunity.
They won nearly every case they argued in the 1950s.
They were more successful in the North where they had white support as legal institutions were more likely to side with them.
What was CORE? What did they do?
Congress of Racial Equality.
Used non-violent direct action such as boycotts and sit-ins to protest segregation.
Also trained others in non-violent methods, spreading their impact further.
They had fewer members than the NAACP.
Worked mainly in the North, and most of their members at first were white, middle class people.
How did universities help the civil rights movement?
Universities allowed Civil Rights Campaigners in the North to meet and organise protests.
In the South, middle class black people used their education and networks to help organise the movement.
What were church organisations? What did they do?
Churches were the centre of the Southern community, so black church leaders were often also civil rights leaders.
They typically had access to higher education and were respected in their communities.
Black church leaders organised peaceful protests and speeches.
They could negotiate with white politicians because of their respected status.
They used similar methods to CORE but churches were often targeted as the meeting points for marches and protests.
What was white support for church organisations like in the early 1950s?
They had some support from white people because of their peaceful methods, and willingness to work within the segregation system.
However other white people were suspicious of their mass black support and organisation.
What was the RCNL? What did they do?
Regional Council of Negro Leadership.
Campaigned for black rights, voter registration and against police brutality, but worked within the segregated system.
It held several rallies in the 1950s attended by 10,000 people.
What was Brown v. Topeka?
NAACP combined five cases that had failed to argue against school desegregation, and took them to the Supreme Court in 'Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas'.
They argued that even with equal provision and facilities, being segregated from white students made black children feel inferior.
They argued that 'separate but equal' therefore broke the 14th Amendment.
How did the Supreme Court judges change during Brown v. Topeka?
During the case, a pro-segregation judge died and was replaced with an anti-segregation judge called Earl Warren who became Chief Justice, meaning he led the Supreme Court.
What was the verdict of Brown v. Topeka?
On 17th May 1954, the Supreme Court said schools ruled Plessy unconstitutional and schools were told to desegregate.
However, it didn't say when they had to do this by, so schools could avoid desegregating.
In May 1955 Brown II ruled that all states should make a 'prompt and reasonable start' on desegregation, but still didn't give a deadline.
What were the positive effects of Brown v. Topeka?
Brown raised awareness and started the legal battle for Civil Rights.
By 1957, 723 school districts had desegregated, and inspired desegregation in other areas of life.
What were the negative effects of Brown v. Topeka?
The Deep South called for 'massive resistance' and threatened any black pupils and supporters who attended desegregated schools.
For example one Senator in Virginia promised to close schools rather than desegregate.
The White Citizens Council was set up in Mississippi to preserve segregation.
KKK membership grew and there were protests outside schools.
Many blacks felt worse off afterwards because of the violence and good black schools closing.
Black students faced threats and bullying.
Black teachers either lost their jobs or faced harassment from white pupils.
Why was Little Rock chosen for desegregation? How many black students applied? How many attended in September 1957?
Little Rock in Arkansas already had some desegregated facilities, and after Brown, plans were made to desegregate the high school.
75 black students applied, and the school chose the top 25.
However, due to threats and violence from racist whites, only nine students were still willing to attend in September 1957.
What opposition was there on the first day of Little Rock desegregation?
Governor Faubus of Arkansas ordered 250 state troops to stop the black students entering, and organised huge protests outside the gates.
The black students were advised to miss the first day, and arrive together the next day on an NAACP organised bus.
However, Elizabeth Eckford didn't get the message and arrived alone to face the white mob screaming "lynch her".
Lynching is an execution without a trial that is carried out by a mob.
The state troopers refused to help her and she fled.
What happened because of opposition to desegregation of Little Rock?
250 reporters showed the events in national newspapers, causing huge outrage in the USA and abroad.
International embarrassment caused President Eisenhower to order the removal of the state troops and sign a Presidential Order to send 1000 federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine, despite his personal opposition to legally enforcing desegregation.
Federal troops had to protect the Little Rock Nine for the rest of the school year, but could not stop the bullying and couldn't protect their homes and families.
Governor Faubus closed every school in Little Rock for the next academic year, but he was forced to re-open and integrate them in September 1959.
How did state governments avoid desegregating schools?
Only desegregating one school year at a time.
Only accepting a few black pupils in each school.
Only desegregating a few schools in the area but keeping the rest segregated.
Introducing testing that was rigged against black pupils.
Using the excuse of riots outside schools to keep black pupils out 'for their own protection'.
Why did the Montgomery Bus Boycott happen?
By the 1950s, seats on buses in Alabama were segregated by race due to the Jim Crow Laws in place.
Black people were forced to sit at the back of the bus, and were forced to give up their seat to any white people that boarded.
On 1st December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus for a white man and was arrested.
Rosa wasn't the first to do this, but was chosen to be the figurehead of the boycott because she was a member of the NAACP and a respected citizen in her community.
The WPC (Women's Political Council) had been campaigning in Montgomery for years about bus segregation.
The WPC had warned Mayor Gayle that if another black person was arrested for breaking bus segregation rules there would be a boycott.
What percentage of black people participated in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and for how long?
90% of black people who used the bus stopped using them for 381 days in protest of segregation of the buses.
What was the MIA? What did it do? How did Martin Luther King get involved?
The Montgomery Improvement Association was set up to improve lives of blacks and support the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
The MIA set up a car pool system to give lifts and used publicity to gain support.
Martin Luther King became the leader of MIA as a respected, educated and peaceful clergyman.
What opposition to the MIA was there?
They faced strong opposition from racist organisations like the White Citizens' Council (WCC) and Ku Klux Klan (KKK).
Many boycotters were arrested and Martin Luther King's house and various churches were bombed.
What happened when MIA members were arrested?
89 members of the MIA were arrested in February 1956 and put on trial, where they spoke about the abuses committed by white drivers, even murder.
King had to pay a $500 fine.
This violent opposition to peaceful protest gained sympathy for the boycott.
How did the Montgomery Bus Boycott end?
The boycott ended when the NAACP went to the Supreme Court with Browder v. Gayle claiming that bus segregation broke the 14th amendment.
The MIA met and also began to demand desegregation.
After two appeals, the Supreme Court upheld its decision to desegregate the buses in Montgomery.
Why was the Montgomery Bus Boycott successful?
They were committed to the cause despite threats, loss of jobs, bombings and arrests.
The WPC and MIA were organised- they held meetings and organised car pools etc.
They kept people informed through leaflets, church services and the local media.
The boycott showed black people could:
Organise mass resistance.
Create peaceful change.
How was the Montgomery Bus Boycott significant?
It showed what non-violent direct action could achieve.
The boycott brought Martin Luther King to the forefront of the Civil Rights movement.
It inspired boycotts in other cities, for example in Tallahassee in Florida.
The violent and racist white reaction had shown whites in a bad light.
Activists were able to use this to further their cause in later struggles like those in Little Rock.
What immediate disappointing outcomes of the Montgomery Bus Boycott were there?
There was no further desegregation of any other facilities in Montgomery.
Desegregated bus services were suspended for a few weeks at first due to violence.
What consequences of the Montgomery Bus Boycott were there?
The Southern Christian Leadership Council was set up 1957 to coordinate church-based protest.
Martin Luther King and Ralph Abernathy of the MIA became the leaders.
They protested segregation, and used non-violent direct, mass action tactics, and had wide black and white membership.
They also worked for voter registration by training people to pass the voter registration tests.
The 1957 Civil Rights Act:
President Eisenhower felt change came from changing people's minds, rather than forcing desegregation but the reaction to Brown and the Boycott forced him to act.
The Dixiecrats opposed the 1957 Civil Rights bill by using a filibuster but it was signed anyway and would persecute violations of voting rights in federal courts.
It showed that the federal government was doing something to support civil rights.
(A filibuster is a tactic used in Congress to delay a vote by talking until the deadline for the vote has passed. In this case, a leading Dixiecrat spoke for over 24 hours!)
However, it was not well enforced as the trials were run in state courts with all white juries.
What was the KKK? What did they do? (Give an example)
A violent white supremacist group, mainly in the South who claimed the Bible supported segregation.
Many Southern white church-goers were members of the KKK, including members of the police and legal system.
In 1955 in Mississippi, the racist killing of two black men who attempted to register to vote was written off by authorities as a car accident.
Nobody was arrested for the crime.
What were White Citizens' Councils? What did they do?
After Brown v. Topeka in 1954, White Citizens' Councils were set up to campaign against desegregation as they did not see black people as equal citizens who should be able to use the same facilities as whites.
They threatened black families who tried to attend desegregated schools, and even bombed schools.
Aside from the KKK, White Citizens' Councils and the Dixiecrats, what other opposition was there to the civil rights movement in the South?
State governors, mayors and state officials in the South nearly all supported segregation.
Who were the Dixiecrats? What did they do?
The most important opponents of desegregation in Congress were called the Dixiecrats.
They were a racist political group who had left the Democrats in opposition to a civil rights bill for the military that President Truman attempted to introduce in 1948.
Although they later re-joined the Democrats, they continued to oppose civil rights.
The Presidents had to take their views into account because there were enough of them in Congress to effect the passing of laws.
Who was Emmett Till? Why was he murdered?
Emmett Till was a 14-year-old black boy from Chicago in the North.
In 1955 he was visiting family in Mississippi.
He was dared by local boys to go into Roy Bryant's shop and talk to Bryant's wife Carolyn.
According to some accounts, Emmett wolf-whistled at Carolyn, but she claimed he grabbed her and made inappropriate suggestions.
Exactly what happened in the store is disputed to this day.
When her husband heard the story the next day, he and his half-brother went to Emmett's uncle's house and kidnapped him.
They beat him, shot him and threw his body in the river with a heavy weight around his neck, attached with barbed wire.
His body was not found until three days later.
Why was Emmett Till's murder significant?
Emmett's mother took his body back to Chicago and had an open casket funeral, so everyone could see what had happened.
The murder of a black boy was not unusual in Mississippi, but caused outrage in the North, from both black and white people.
Roy Bryant and his half-brother were cleared of the murder by a court in Mississippi, despite later admitting their guilt in a magazine article that they were paid $3500 for.
Emmett's murder fuelled the growth of the Civil Rights movement by showing how outrage and media coverage of injustice could gain support.
The NAACP even produced a leaflet called 'M is for Mississippi and Murder'.
What was the SNCC?
The SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) was set up by the SCLC and CORE as a nonviolent student group that trained students to do sit-ins.
Why were the Greensboro sit-ins significant?
It showed the importance of publicity in gaining supporters for the cause of racial equality and was a very public form of protest.
Due to the nonviolent nature of the protests, the media were generally supportive, and white people began to join the protests despite threats.
Over 50,000 people were involved by April.
What were the Freedom Rides? What were the results of the first one?
In December 1960, the Supreme Court ordered that all state transport and facilities should be desegregated.
13 CORE activists (seven black and six white) tested bus desegregation by riding two buses from Washington DC to the South.
Segregation was still being enforced on buses, so the activists sought to encourage government action to enforce the desegregation.
The bus reached Anniston in Alabama with very little trouble, and only two arrests.
However, the KKK disagreed with desegregating buses due to their racist views.
100 KKK members attacked and firebombed the first bus in Anniston, nearly killing everyone inside.
The riders on the second bus were beaten but drove on to Birmingham, where they were beaten again by the KKK.
The fate of the Freedom Riders was a huge embarrassment to the government as state policemen like Bull Connor and politicians had supported the KKK's violent acts.
It inspired the SNCC to have their own freedom rides.
How did the SNCC's and other groups' freedom rides go? What were the results?
In May they tried to ride from Tennessee to Birmingham, Alabama and were trapped in the bus station by an angry mob.
The federal government forced the Governor to escort them away to Montgomery, but here they were attacked by 1000 members of the WCC and KKK.
The Riders were arrested.
In total there were 60 freedom rides and 300 riders were arrested.
On 1st November 1961 the federal government said it would use federal officers to enforce desegregation, so Southern states began to desegregate bus facilities.
Who was James Meredith? What was he trying to do? Who tried to stop him?
James Meredith was a black student who applied to study at the University of Mississippi in 1961.
The University of Mississippi rejected Meredith's application but was ordered by Supreme Court to admit him in 1962 as the NAACP argued he was rejected because he was black.
His rejection was a clear violation of the previous ruling in favour of the desegregation of education as a result of Brown v. Topeka.
The Governor of Mississippi and University officials ignored the order and physically stopped him from registering.
They were members of the white supremacist WCC.
500 federal officials were sent to protect Meredith while registering.
President Kennedy appealed for calm on TV and radio, but a 3,000-man mob attacked the federal officials.
2 civilians died in the clashes.
375 civilians were injured.
28 federal officials were shot by the mob.
Federal troops were sent in to stop the riots and guarded James all year as he continued his studies.
What was the Campaign in Birmingham (1963)? What were the results?
Campaign C (C for confrontation) aimed to end segregation by provoking white violence using nonviolent methods in order to gain support from the wider public.
They chose Birmingham because of its total segregation, and because Bull Connor was Chief of Police.
The SNCC, SCLC and Martin Luther King were all involved.
It included sit-ins, boycotts and peaceful marches.
Thousands took part, with many arrested.
The SNCC trained young demonstrators, as most of the adults were in jail.
6000 marched, and about 900 were arrested.
Chief of Police Bull Connor used fire hoses and attack dogs on the teenagers which caused massive outcry.
What was the March on Washington (1963)?
The March for Jobs and Freedom had 250,000 people march on Washington (about 40,000 were white).
It was the largest political protest in US history.
It was peaceful and broadcast on TV with famous people like Bob Dylan involved.
Martin Luther King made the closing speech ('I have a Dream') that confirmed his role as leader of the Civil Rights movement.
The speech signified how prominent the movement had become at that time.
What was the Freedom Summer?
Between 1962 and 1964, 700,000 black Americans had registered to vote in the South, but this was still not very many compared to the number of black people who lived there.
The SNCC and CORE sent 1000 volunteers to Mississippi to increase black voter registration.
Many volunteers were white middle class college students who taught people how to pass the voter registration tests.
What opposition to the Freedom Summer was there?
They faced huge opposition from the KKK who burnt 37 black churches and 30 homes.
Only 1,600 out of the 17,000 black people who tried to register to vote were successful.
Two CORE activists (one white and one black) and a white volunteer were arrested on 21st June 1964 and murdered on their way home by the KKK.
Their bodies weren't found until the 4th August, and the bodies of eight other black men were also found, three of which were CORE workers.
It was a national scandal.
What was the Civil Rights Act? What did it do? Was it successful?
The Civil Rights Act was introduced by President Kennedy and passed by President Johnson on 2nd July 1964.
It introduced bans on:
Discriminatory voter registration tests designed to prevent black people from registering to vote.
Discrimination in public spaces and multi-state businesses.
Discrimination in employment.
The Civil Rights Act established the following:
An Equal Opportunities Commission to enforce employment equality.
Government ability to force desegregation in schools.
Government ability to remove funding from discriminating state projects.
However, there was nothing to enforce these changes and businesses and schools found loopholes in order to continue discriminating against black people.
The Equal Opportunities Commission only dealt with complaints, which were rarely made due to threats, and didn't have enough staff to investigate all claims.
Despite the passing of new laws, many black Americans continued to face discrimination in education, housing and employment as many in society still held racist views towards black people.
They still faced violence and police harassment and were treated as second class citizens.
What was the Voting Rights Act? What did it do? Was it successful?
Passed on 6th August by President Johnson.
The Voting Rights Act set up:
A single voter registration requirement that would be enforced by federal government. States could only set extra qualification rules with federal approval.
Federal officials to increase voter registration in states where over 50% of those eligible to vote were not registered.
By December 1965, nearly 80,000 new voters were registered, however the process was very slow and led to frustration that the government was still not doing enough.
Despite the passing of new laws, many black Americans continued to face discrimination in education, housing and employment as many in society still held racist views towards black people.
They still faced violence and police harassment and were treated as second class citizens.
What did President Kennedy do to help the civil rights movement?
Appointed black people to high-level jobs.
For example, Thurgood Marshall in the courts.
Pressed for the Civil Rights Laws, but was assassinated before it was passed.
Used executive orders to send federal troops to Ole' Miss (University of Mississippi) to help James Meredith.
Used personal pressure to get escorts for the Freedom Riders.
What did President Johnson do to help the civil rights movement?
Appointed black people to high level jobs.
For example, Patricia Harris as US Ambassador.
Passed the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Act.
Used executive orders to federalise state troops to escort the Selma marchers to safety.
Used personal pressure to get Southern politicians to support the Civil Rights bill through his good relations with the Dixiecrats.
What happened in Selma in 1965?
In 1965, Selma, Alabama had more black people eligible to vote than white people, but only 1% were actually registered due to Selma having the largest WCC in Alabama.
The WCC actively opposed voter registration efforts as they did not want black people to be able to vote and elect officials that may be sympathetic to their issues.
The SCLC and Martin Luther King went to Selma in 1965 to increase voter registration and protest unfair registration tests.
Protesters were attacked and faced police confrontations.
One protestor died.
At the same time, President Johnson was trying to gain support for the Voting Rights Act.
On 7th March, protestors started to march from Selma to Montgomery but were attacked just outside Selma by state troopers who used tear gas and electric cattle prods.
This became known as Bloody Sunday and caused national outrage.
It sparked marches all over the USA in support of the protestors in Selma, with hundreds of black and white people joining.
Johnson ordered the state national guard to be put under federal control and escort the Selma protestors safely to Montgomery, led by Martin Luther King.
The Selma to Montgomery March led to the Voting Rights Act 1965.
What was the Nation of Islam?
The Nation of Islam (NOI) is a religious and political movement in the USA founded in 1930.
The NOI began as a black separatist organisation that shares some beliefs with the major denominations of Islam, such as the belief in one God (Allah).
Black separatism is the belief that black people should live in a society completely separate from white people.
The NOI has many teachings that are not shared by the denominations of Islam.
NOI members believe that white people are devils, whereas Muslims believe all races are equal.
This ideology started the theory of black supremacism.
The NOI wanted to create a new country in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, which would only contain black citizens.
Who was Malcolm X? What was his initial stance on civil rights? How did he increase NOI membership?
Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little, was a Nation of Islam (NOI) campaigner who was frustrated with the lack of progress non-violent protest had gained.
He became a member of the NOI while in prison for burglary and once released, became an NOI spokesman.
He changed his surname from Little to X, as he regarded the name 'Little' to have been imposed on to his slave ancestors' by their owner.
The surname X symbolised his unknown African family name.
To increase membership, he:
Rejected integration of blacks into white society as pointless, as he thought white people would never accept black equality.
Wanted black people to have separate but equal facilities.
Believed in black nationalism - the idea that black people needed their own nation.
Accepted the possibility of using violence to gain equality, but only in self-defence.
Understood the frustration many had with civil rights progress, particularly young men in ghettos.
Thanks to his actions, NOI membership rose from 500 members in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963.
How did Malcolm X's views differ to those of the non-violent civil rights movement (e.g. MLK)?
Malcolm X's views differed greatly to those of the nonviolent Civil Rights movement, he believed that black people's rights should be obtained "by any means necessary".
His views on violent resistance did not appeal to white people as Martin Luther King's peaceful stance did.
Black people had been characterised as aggressive in American society, so many felt like violence did not further the cause for civil rights.
Malcolm X said: "Concerning nonviolence, it is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks".
What did Malcolm X do after leaving the NOI?
In 1964, Malcolm X left the NOI and set up Muslim Mosque Inc. after an argument with NOI leader Elijah Mohammed:
Malcolm X alleged that Elijah Mohammed was having affairs with NOI secretaries.
Malcolm X made inflammatory statements in the wake of President Kennedy's assassination that had angered Elijah Mohammed.
NOI members started to send Malcolm X death threats, firebombed his home, and made speeches against him.
After leaving the NOI, Malcolm X went to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, where he became more accepting of integration and of the role of white people in the movement
He agreed to work with other civil rights leaders that had distanced themselves from his past methods.
When was Malcolm X assassinated? What effects did that have?
The NOI assassinated Malcolm X on February 21st 1965, while he was making a speech in New York.
Three NOI members were arrested for the murder and given life sentences: Talmadge Hayer, Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson.
Talmadge Hayer confessed to the murder but remained adamant that the other two convicted were not involved.
Malcolm X's assassination triggered many of his followers to focus on his earlier acceptance of the possibility of using violence to gain equality, but only in self-defence.
This laid the foundation for the emergence of the Black Power movement.
What was Black Power? What was its aims?
Black Power was the slogan used by radical groups who disagreed with non-violent direct action, and were influenced by Malcolm X.
They used militant language and tried to start a 'social revolution' to improve the lives of local poor black people in ghettos.
They aimed to:
Increase pride in black history and culture.
Make black people self-sufficient and not need help from white people.
Work against forced integration.
Why did Black Power become more popular?
Progress in civil rights seemed slow.
The Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts had not actually made much difference in the Deep South.
Many thought the price of integration was not worth it.
Many Civil Rights campaigners (including Martin Luther King) started to focus on other things after 1965, such as the Vietnam War and poverty, and people felt they had abandoned the civil rights campaign before real change had happened.
Ghetto conditions were getting worse, and there was continued discrimination in education and jobs.
They appealed to young people through a sense of pride in their heritage, and used their anger about the violence they faced to demand equality from politicians.
They were successful on local issues like equal opportunities employment.
What did Stokely Carmichael do? Was he successful?
Stokely Carmichael of the SNCC set up the Lowndes Country Freedom Organisation as a political party that would campaign on issues that black people cared about, as it was felt that there was no point fighting for the right to vote if there was nobody black people wanted to vote for.
Carmichael was elected chairman of the SNCC in 1966 and moved away from non-violent direct action.
His election introduced more Black Power supporters who ran campaigns in the ghettos in the North.
Carmichael's militant speeches won many people over despite King's calls for non-violence.
The SNCC and CORE's support for Black Power lost them both black and white supporters.
What was the March Against Fear?
In Mississippi in June 1966, James Meredith started the March Against Fear to protest the violence black Americans in the South faced.
He was shot on the second day, so Martin Luther King and Stokely Carmichael took over.
What happened at the 1968 Mexico Olympics? What were the consequences?
Two black Americans won gold and bronze medals in the 200m race (Tommie Smith and John Carlos).
On the podium, as the US national anthem played, they raised their fists in the Black Power symbol to protest the unfair treatment of black people in the US.
They were booed by the crowd, and were suspended from the US Olympic team.
They received death threats and the press and politicians criticised their very public, political action.
However, they inspired many young black people to join the Black Power movement and speak out about the oppression they faced.
Who were the Black Panthers? What did they do?
The Black Panthers were set up in California in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale.
They became the most famous, largest and most feared Black Power group when they went to the State Capitol armed with guns to protest against a proposed law to ban the carrying of weapons openly.
They wanted fully black communities with black officials working for their own interests and self-defence, as they believed white officials wouldn't support them.
Unlike many Black Power groups, they did not rule out working with white people who supported them.
They had a 10-point program to improve black communities.
This included breakfast programs for children, health clinics, better housing, employment, education, and an end to police brutality.
They also organised safety patrols, tried to stop gang conflict and demanded better facilities from local government.
They taped police harassment cases and carried guns.
However, this led to shoot outs and they were accused of stealing and exhorting money from businesses to fund their program.
By 1968, 25 cities had Panther groups but they never had more than around 2,000 members.
Why were there riots from 1964-68?
There were 329 major riots in 257 cities between 1964 and 1968, starting just two weeks after the Civil Rights Act was passed.
They resulted in 220 deaths and 52,629 arrests.
They were partially a reaction to ghetto conditions, and police discrimination against black people in the North.
The first was triggered when a policeman shot a young black man, and led to other cities in the North.
The Watts riots in LA occurred after a black man was wrongfully arrested.
The riots were also a protest against long term problems such as:
City officials ignoring complaints from black neighbourhoods.
Unemployment and low wages.
Poor housing and living conditions.
Poor education.
Violence in Mississippi and Selma.
80% of rioters were young black men, who attacked discriminating white businesses but not white people.
In fact, more black people died during the riots than whites.
The riots drew attention to the problems in the ghettos.
Martin Luther King visited Watts and started an SCLC campaign in the North.
President Johnson started to put more money into improving the ghettos and set up an enquiry into the riots: the Kerner Report.
What did the Kerner Report say?
The riots were caused by poor ghetto conditions, and that white officials had failed to fix the problems there.
White officials needed to involve black communities in decisions and listen to their issues.
Policing should be changed to stop police violence and support the community.
Federal money should be spent on improving conditions not on police training which just gave them more weapons to deal with riots in a violent manner.
The media had over-exaggerated the extent and the violence of the riots, which hadn't helped.
Why did Martin Luther King and the SCLC protest in the North? What else did they do?
The SCLC was shocked by the Watts Riots, and wanted to prove non-violent direct action still worked.
Martin Luther King was invited to Chicago to hold protests alongside the Coordinating Council of Community Organisations (CCCO) for fairer housing in 1966.
The SCLC helped tenants' associations fight against segregated housing and unreasonably high rents, and started Operation Breadbasket to encourage businesses to employ more black workers.
They also planned a Chicago Freedom Movement.
What opposition was there to the SCLC and MLK's campaign in the North?
Many black politicians opposed the SCLC's campaigns, and the SCLC didn't really connect with ghetto gangs.
Riots began before King's planned march through white neighbourhoods could start.
The SCLC was accused of encouraging them and state troops had to be called in to reassert order.
What were the results, successes and failures of the SCLC and MLK's campaign in the North?
The March went ahead and produced a violent white response, but the media weren't as supportive as they had been in the South.
An agreement was made on fair housing prices between Mayor Daley, the Chicago Freedom Movement and the Chicago Real Estate Board, so Martin Luther King and the SCLC left.
Operation Breadbasket helped increase black employment in white companies.
There had been a peaceful protest and an agreement was made.
King had not been able to stop the violence on both sides.
Mayor Daley ignored the agreement he made after King left. Housing prices stayed the same
The federal government didn't do anything about Daley's backtracking because King publicly disagreed with President Johnson's involvement in the Vietnam War.
How were the FBI involved in the civil rights movement?
During the Civil Rights movement, the FBI conducted covert operations called COINTELPRO with the aim of disrupting the movement, which they felt was a risk to national security.
These operations included intimidation tactics like surveillance, alleged blackmail, threats, and intimidation.
When was Martin Luther King assassinated? Who was arrested? What happened?
Martin Luther King was preparing for a march in Memphis, Tennessee to support refuse collectors, planning a 'Poor People's Campaign'.
On 4th April 1968, he was shot dead at the age of 39 on the balcony of his hotel room.
A man was seen fleeing the area, and a rifle and binoculars were found stashed near the hotel.
James Earl Ray was arrested for the assassination over 2 months later at Heathrow Airport in London after his fingerprints matched those found on the rifle.
Ray was allegedly attempting to flee to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), which at the time was controlled by Prime Minister Ian Smith's white supremacist government.
After being extradited back to Tennessee, James Earl Ray confessed to the murder and entered a guilty plea.
He was sentenced to 99 years in prison.
However, he spent the rest of his life trying to withdraw his guilty plea.
Many have disputed that James Earl Ray was the sole participant in Martin Luther King's assassination.
What were the consequences of Martin Luther King's assassination?
His assassination led to riots in 172 cities.
2 black people died.
27,000 were arrested.
There was $45 million cost in damage.
This lost the civil rights movement some white support.
The Poor People's Campaign failed because of arguments within the SCLC leadership and the poor weather meaning people weren't willing to camp out outside the Capitol in Washington.
The 1968 Civil Rights Act was passed quickly, making housing practices fairer and protecting civil rights activists, but also increasing the punishment for rioting.
Many white people saw the job as done, so became less supportive.
Without King, many white people felt they had nobody in the civil rights movement to relate to, and began to oppose the more radical demands for equality.
The SNCC changed their name from 'non-violent' to 'national' so lost a lot of support from their original members.
What were Nixon's policies towards the civil rights movement?
Nixon supported Civil Rights but to make it acceptable to southern whites, he sold it as a way of stopping the riots.
Set up funding for black businesses in black neighbourhoods, and gave tax breaks to white businesses in these areas.
He argued that black people would be less likely to riot and attack their own businesses.
He pressed for affirmative action in jobs, where an employer is encouraged to increase their intake of new black employees over white employees.
He appointed more black officials in the White House.
For example, James Farmer of CORE was given a top job in the Department of Health, Welfare and Education.
What was the extent of civil rights progress by 1975?
By 1969, local protests still campaigned for desegregation and equality, but larger protests were about single issues, such as the Black Panthers' campaign to free some of their arrested members.
The national Civil Rights campaign was influenced by the Vietnam War, as black people didn't want to fight for a racist government.
A famous opponent of the Vietnam War was Mohammed Ali.
In 1970, the Voting Rights Act banned state literacy tests that served to prevent black people from registering to vote.
In 1975 the act was expanded to include other races too.
Black Americans were becoming Senators, members of Congress, governors, mayors, and police chiefs.
A high percentage of black people were registered to vote.
Athletes, actors, and musicians were famous all over the world, and the struggle for Civil Rights was well known and supported.
However, many blacks still lived in poverty and faced discrimination, as the enforcement of the act was varied and not always beneficial to black people.
Society at large was still discriminatory towards black people.
Who controlled Vietnam before WW2? What were they trying to do? Who opposed them initially?
France had controlled Vietnam before WW2, but during the war it had been taken over by Japan and in 1945 France wanted Vietnam back.
However, French rule was opposed by the nationalist group, the Viet Minh (set up by Ho Chi Minh) who wanted Vietnamese independence.
The Viet Minh were strongest in the Northern part of Vietnam.
Why did the USA start getting involved with Vietnam?
In 1949 China became communist, and the USA was scared communism would spread into Vietnam as China sent military supplies to the Viet Minh.
In response, the USA sent the French military supplies and advisors.
They were paying about 80% of France's military costs by 1954.
What happened at Dien Bien Phu? Why did France lose?
In the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the French were surrounded and defeated by the Viet Minh after 55 days of fighting and left Vietnam.
The USA didn't help because they didn't want to get involved in another large scale war after WW2 and had spent a lot of money on a recent war in Korea.
The Viet Minh knew the area well and used it to their advantage to surprise the French.
China supported the Viet Minh with troops and supplies.
Local villagers helped the Viet Minh by moving supplies and spying on the French army.
The Viet Minh were committed and worked round the clock to defeat the French.
The French underestimated the Viet Minh, and the French troops did not care about France having control of Vietnam.
What was agreed at the Geneva Accords (1954)? How did the USA and Vietnam respond?
Vietnam was temporarily split in two along the 17th parallel, with a demilitarised zone in the middle.
Elections would be held in 1956 to decide who would rule the whole of Vietnam, but no clear system was agreed.
No foreign military forces could set up military bases anywhere in Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh would control a small area of the North.
Bao Dai would run the South, but was soon replaced by Ngo Dinh Diem- a strong anti-communist.
Nobody could move into the other half of the country for 300 days.
The USA and the South Vietnamese refused to agree to the demands.
The North was forced to accept the demands by their ally China, although they felt that they had been given a smaller area than the one they had controlled in 1945.
Why did the USA stay in Vietnam after the Geneva Accords?
The main reason why the US stayed in Vietnam after the Geneva Accords was the domino theory.
This claimed that if one country became communist, the others around it would follow.
President Eisenhower set up SEATO with 7 other countries in 1954 to stop the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, by force if necessary.
Why was Diem unpopular?
Diem's government didn't have much support because:
Many of the people of South Vietnam believed in communism.
There were other political and religious groups that used their own armies to oppose Diem.
Diem favoured Catholics over the majority of the population who were Buddhist, giving them government jobs. He repressed Buddhists who participated in civil resistance against his regime.
Diem had little respect for the villages and anyone who lived outside of Saigon.
He did nothing to help villagers who complained about greedy and corrupt land owners.
What support for Diem was there?
Eisenhower supported Diem's weak government with advisors to train the South Vietnamese army (the ARVN), rather than send US troops.
He wanted to avoid starting a war with the USSR or China.
In 1956 Diem refused to hold elections like the Geneva Accords had demanded.
The US supported him as they were afraid that the communists would win the election.
How did Diem stop opponents?
Diem had to use $4 billion of US money and troops to support his government, and began to arrest suspected communists and any opponents.
Around 65,000 people were arrested and 2,000 were killed.
What was the Vietcong?
The Vietcong (VC) were a collection of communist groups that opposed Diem, killing over 400 of his hated and corrupt officials.
North Vietnam supported the VC, and in 1959 sent troops and weapons into the South using the Ho Chi Minh trail.
What was the Ho Chi Minh Trail?
The Ho Chi Minh trail was a trail that went from North Vietnam to South Vietnam, through Laos and Cambodia and was used to send supplies to the VC.
What was the NLF?
The VC joined with other opposition groups to form the National Liberation Front (NLF) which spread communism into the villages and encouraged them to help the VC and bring down Diem's US backed regime.
Why was Diem removed from power?
In January 1963 the ARVN lost the Battle of Ap Bac, despite massive US military support.
It was embarrassing for the USA.
In May, Diem's troops shot at a Buddhist procession, killing nine people.
In June, a Buddhist monk burned himself to death in Saigon in protest over Diem's treatment of Buddhists.
In response, Diem raided and closed Buddhist temples.
The USA had to accept Diem's government was too unpopular to continue.
They publicly announced they would no longer support him, and ARVN generals removed him from power.
He was later assassinated.
What were President Johnson's aims for Vietnam?
After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson wanted to continue Kennedy's aims of ensuring South Vietnam had a democratic, popular government that would oppose communism, and to avoid the USA getting involved in an escalating war.
Johnson increased the number of advisors in South Vietnam to 200,000.
How did the Vietcong gain power in Vietnam?
The ARVN were too busy arguing about who should be the leader rather than working to defeat the VC, despite having five times more troops.
On the other hand, the NLF were very well organised, using small, fast-acting cells of VC fighters.
China sent $100 million in aid to South Vietnam, using the Ho Chi Minh trail.
The Southern government was still unpopular as it was seen as a puppet of the USA.
The VC gained local support by introducing reforms and using propaganda.
The VC began to attack more often and attacked more US military targets.
What was the Gulf of Tonkin Incident?
The USA had been using its ships to allow ARVN troops to attack the North along the Gulf of Tonkin, which angered the North.
On 2nd August 1964 three torpedo boats from the North fired on the USS Maddox, which fired back.
Two days later another attack was reported (although this could have been mistaken information) so Johnson ordered a US air strike on North Vietnamese targets.
Two US planes were shot down.
What was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? What happened after?
On 7th August Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which said that Johnson would have the power to stop further attacks without asking for Congress' permission or declaring war.
Johnson never actually declared war on the North as this might lead to a war with China or the USSR as well, but it allowed him to send troops to Vietnam, so had the same effect in the end.
From November 1964, the North sent increasing numbers of troops and supplies into South Vietnam.
The VC won battles at Binh Gia and successfully attacked the US airfield at Pleiku.
The US was determined to find a popular leader for South Vietnam, as they knew the South could only win against the North with public support, and that this had to be earned by a Vietnamese, not American government.
However, they knew the ARVN couldn't do this at the time, so sent in US troops to keep the anti-communist government in power.
What tactics did the Vietcong use?
Guerrilla warfare is when fighters avoid open battles and instead ambush their enemies.
It was used due to small size of VC compared to USA.
It was hard for the ARVN and USA to fight back because the VC blended into villages as they wore no uniform.
Ambush attacks, infiltrated US army bases/cities and laid traps.
A 600-mile trail through Laos and Cambodia used to provide supplies from North/China for attacks in South.
The USA couldn't stop it as goes through other countries, and they wouldn't declare war on them.
The VC used tunnels as bases and ambush spots.
They contained hospitals, storage and weapons and allowed the VC to move unseen across 400km of South Vietnam.
The US couldn't fit in the tunnels to destroy them, so simply destroyed any entrances they found.
Examples of VC traps would be Punji sticks covered in excrement or Bouncing Betty mines laid by women and children.
19% of US casualties were caused by traps.
What was Operation Rolling Thunder? Why did it fail?
Johnson wanted to bomb North Vietnam into surrender, rather than sending US troops to Vietnam.
Operation Rolling Thunder targeted the Ho Chi Minh trail and industry, but not the capital Hanoi and not the port where Soviet supplies arrived in the North.
90,000 were killed, and it cost the US $4 billion.
However it failed because the VC used tunnels under the Ho Chi Minh trail to avoid the bombings, so supplies continued.
The USSR and China sent military supplies into the North, so the destruction of industry didn't matter too much.
The USSR sent $505 million in aid in 1967.
Also, the high civilian death rates made the USA even more unpopular.
What tactics did the US use during the Vietnam War (apart from Operation Rolling Thunder)?
As well as conventional bombs, Operation Rolling Thunder used napalm.
A highly flammable substance made from petrol thickened with soaps that stuck to skin and burnt through to the bone.
They also used pineapple bombs that sprayed pellets everywhere when they exploded, shooting into people like bullets.
The US focused on winning the war through capturing land and killing the VC, rather than gaining public support.
In March 1965, 3500 US marines arrived in South Vietnam.
Small units of them (supported by the ARVN) would hunt down and destroy VC villages in the South by bombing or using chemical weapons.
One example was Operation Cedar Falls in 1967 where the US burnt down villages for three weeks, killing 750 VC.
Despite some early successes in finding and killing VC fighters, as soon as the US troops left the VC returned to the area.
The attacks made 4 million South Vietnamese into refugees from the violence, making the US and South Vietnamese government even more unpopular.
Agent Orange was a weed killer used to destroy jungle and farmland, clear out the jungle to find VC bases and stop villagers supplying the VC with food.
From 1964-1971 Operation Ranch Hand saw over 24% of South Vietnam and 3,000 villages sprayed with chemicals, poisoning water supplies and causing sometimes fatal health problems.
What was the Tet Offensive? What happened?
The North and VC launched a surprise attack on 26 cities in South during the 1968 New Year's Tet festival.
The VC used decoy methods by claiming they were willing to negotiate for peace, but attacking areas close to the demilitarised zone to draw US troops away from the cities.
84,000 communist troops then attacked southern cities on 30th January, when there was the Tet ceasefire.
Most famously, the city of Hue was captured, and the US embassy in Saigon was taken for 6 hours.
The attack in Saigon was beaten by US troops in 2 days, and within 3 weeks in Hue.
What were the consequences of the Tet Offensive for the US and the Vietcong?
It shocked people in the US as they had been told they were winning the war, but as it was all reported on TV people saw that they weren't.
The South didn't rise up in revolution like the VC had expected, and the VC were nearly wiped out in the fighting.
The communists lost 45,000 men, and although they couldn't win by direct attack, they showed that they could launch a huge surprise attack on the US.
The VC's only lasting victory was that they could use it in propaganda.
The Tet Offensive led to huge anti-war protests in America with over 150,000 people.
It led to peace talks in 1968 which were a turning point in the war.
What did Kennedy do in Vietnam when he became President? Why did it fail?
When Kennedy became President in 1961 he increased the number of advisors to the South by another 16,000 to train the ARVN to fight the 12,000 VC fighters who now controlled around half of South Vietnam.
Kennedy wanted to hunt down the VC and destroy them, but also to gain the support of the local people.
However, the ARVN were seen as part of Diem's corrupt government.
American attempts to train villagers to fight the VC failed because they didn't speak Vietnamese and couldn't stop the VC visiting villages at night when they had left.
In 1962 the USA set up the Strategic Hamlet Program which built around 5,000 new villages that would be guarded by the ARVN to prevent the VC recruiting villagers and getting supplies.
They even built new schools and hospitals for the people, hoping that this would earn support for Diem.
However, villagers were forced to move into the Strategic Hamlets when they didn't want to, and some new villages faced starvation as the government didn't provide enough food.
This made people even less likely to support Diem.
What methods did Nixon use to end the Vietnam War (excluding Vietnamisation)?
Official peace talks:
Nixon sent representatives to negotiate with North and South Vietnam, as well as the VC.
However, this would be a very long and difficult process.
Secret peace talks:
Nixon sent Henry Kissinger to negotiate secretly with the leader of North Vietnam, Le Duc Tho.
Troop withdrawal:
Nixon decreased the number of troops in Vietnam by 25,000 and began to withdraw them from July 1969 onwards.
ARVN training:
Nixon ordered General Abrams to focus on training the ARVN to carry on the war without American troops.
Secret bombings:
In March 1969 Nixon ordered bombs to be dropped on the Ho Chi Minh trail in Cambodia.
What was Vietnamisation? How was it received by the US?
On 25th July 1969 Nixon made a speech about the role of the USA in the future of South East Asia.
This became known as Vietnamisation.
It said that the USA would uphold any treaties it had made so far and help their allies against nuclear threat by providing training for troops in that country but not sending in US troops.
This was similar to the situation in 1964 when the US provided advice and money, but no soldiers.
Vietnamisation would allow the US to 'withdraw with honour' in the eyes of the Nixon administration and that South Vietnam would remain an independent, non-communist country.
The US public welcomed Vietnamisation, but the army leadership felt that the US was withdrawing before the ARVN were ready and that after the Tet Offensive, more troops would give them a chance to fully defeat the VC.
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