Psychology Exam 3

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A test that measures electrical activity in the brain and is used to detect and record brain wave patterns.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

Deep sleep divided into three stages (N1, N2, N3) characterized by slower brain activity and absence of rapid eye movements.

REM Sleep

Dreaming sleep with rapid eye movements and increased brain activity.

Sleep Cycles

Transitions between NREM and REM sleep that occur throughout the night.

NREM Stage 1 (N1)

Light sleep characterized by theta waves, transitioning from wakefulness to sleep.

NREM Stage 2 (N2)

Deeper sleep with sleep spindles and K-complexes.

NREM Stage 3 (N3)

Deep sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep, characterized by delta waves.

Restoration Theory

The concept that sleep is essential for restoring and rejuvenating the body and mind, allowing for physical and mental repair processes to occur.

Content of Dreams

Mental experiences that occur during REM sleep, which can vary widely among individuals and range from mundane to fantastical.

Manifest Content

The surface-level content of a dream, representing what is actually happening in the dream.

Latent Content

The underlying, symbolic meaning of a dream, often related to unconscious desires or conflicts.

Activation Synthesis Model

The theory that dreams are the result of random neural activity, and the brain attempts to make sense of this activity by creating a narrative.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and assumes that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response

The automatic, unlearned response to the UCS.

Neutral Stimulus

Initially, a stimulus that does not evoke a response.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a response.

Conditioned Response

The learned response to the CS.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a response.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Innately reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

Conditioned Reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers.

Imprinting

Rapid and innate learning that occurs during a critical period, often associated with attachment.

Attachment

Emotional bond between individuals, particularly observed in parent-child relationships.

Circadian Rhythms

Biological or psychological processes that vary over a 24-hour period, regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleepiness, with its production suppressed by bright light.

Sleep Stages

Different stages of sleep characterized by specific brainwave patterns and physiological changes.

Hypnagogic Hallucinations

Vivid sensory experiences that can occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.

Sleep Deprivation

The state of not getting enough sleep, which can lead to impaired cognitive and physical functions.

Memory Consolidation

The process of strengthening and stabilizing memories during sleep.

Jet Lag

Desynchronization of circadian rhythms that can occur when traveling across time zones.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

The master biological clock in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms.

Garcia & Koelling Study

A study that demonstrated taste aversion can be learned more easily with nausea-inducing stimuli, supporting the concept of biological preparedness.

Harlow's Monkey Study

A study that emphasized the importance of contact comfort in attachment, showing that monkeys preferred a soft, comforting surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided food.

Yawning

A behavior that may regulate arousal, and contagious yawning may relate to empathy.

Sleep Talking

Talking that can occur during different sleep stages.

Sleep Paralysis

A temporary condition preventing movement upon waking.

Sleep Cycles

90-minute cycles of alternating NREM and REM sleep, with NREM stages progressing from lighter to deeper sleep and REM sleep characterized by vivid dreams and rapid eye movements.

Psychoanalytic Model

A model that explains dreams as expressions of repressed sexual and aggressive urges (By Freud).

Neurocognitive Model

A model that explains dreams as reflecting waking cognition and emphasizing continuity between waking and dreaming.

Sleep Thinking

Mental activity that occurs during NREM slow-wave sleep.

Dreams

Unfolding sequences of perceptions, thoughts, and emotions that occur during sleep, typically during REM sleep.

PET and fMRI scans

Imaging techniques used to reveal distinct brain activity during REM sleep compared to wakefulness or NREM slow-wave sleep.

Limbic System

A brain system involved in emotions, motivation, and memory, which shows increased activity during REM sleep.

Dream Themes

Coherent and patterned themes that often involve everyday settings, people, activities, and events.

Nightmares

Vivid and disturbing dreams that often awaken the sleeper and involve intense negative emotions.

Stimulus Generalization

When stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli.

Higher Order Conditioning

When a conditioned stimulus functions as an unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Demonstration in Pavlov's Laboratory

Conditioned a dog to salivate (conditioned response) to the sight of meat powder (conditioned stimulus).

Learned Associations

Associations between stimuli and behavior that guide behavior.

Neural Networks

Distinct networks in the amygdala that encode positive and negative associations.

Neuronal Connections

Strengthening of neurons in response to rewarding or fear-inducing stimuli.

Substance Abuse and Addiction

Disorders that may involve maladaptive approach behaviors to harmful stimuli.

Phobias and Anxiety

Disorders that may involve an overactive avoidance network.

Neural circuits

Networks of interconnected neurons that are involved in specific behaviors or functions in the brain.

Approach and avoidance behaviors

Behaviors that involve either moving towards or moving away from a stimulus or situation.

Psychological disorders

Mental health conditions that affect a person's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Wearable technology

Devices that can be worn on the body, such as smartwatches or fitness trackers, that collect data and provide feedback on various aspects of a person's behavior or health.

Bad habit

A behavior that is considered undesirable or harmful.

Good habit

A behavior that is considered beneficial or positive.

Operant chamber (Skinner box)

A controlled environment used in behavioral experiments, typically with animals, that allows for the study of the relationship between behavior and consequences.

Amygdala

A region of the brain involved in processing emotions and emotional responses.

Nucleus accumbens

A region of the brain involved in reward and reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only sometimes or intermittently.

Schedules of reinforcement

Different patterns of delivering reinforcement, such as fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules.

Behavior modification

The application of learning principles to change or modify behaviors in order to achieve desired outcomes.

Cognitive maps

Mental representations of the layout or structure of familiar environments.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not immediately expressed in behavior.

Learned helplessness

A state of passive resignation or lack of response resulting from repeated exposure to uncontrollable, aversive events.

Cognitive factors

Mental processes and cognitive abilities that influence learning and behavior.

Biological predispositions

Innate or genetic factors that influence an organism's ability to learn or respond to certain stimuli.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

Albert Bandura

A psychologist known for his research on observational learning and social cognitive theory.

Cognitive processes

Mental processes such as attention, memory, motor skills, and motivation that are involved in observational learning.

Learning styles

The idea that individuals have preferred ways of learning and processing information.

Chimpanzee tribes

Groups of chimpanzees that develop unique cultures and behaviors through observational learning.

Media influence

The impact that media, such as television, movies, or social media, can have on behavior and attitudes.

Violent media

Media content that depicts or promotes violence.

Critical thinking

The ability to analyze and evaluate information or arguments in a logical and rational manner.

Positive effects of media

The beneficial or positive outcomes that can result from exposure to media content.