CYAF 271- Exam 1

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Believes children need stable families that provide constant mutual interaction with their children. Individuals and their enviroment= development.

1. Microsystem

Immediate environments of the child, directly involving child- Affects child but child affects them as well.

2. Mesosystem

Connections within immediate people/ environments, not directly involving child.

3. Exosystem

Consists of settings that do not include children but that affect them.

4. Macrosystem

Underlying ideological and cultural influences- the ‘laws’ of society.

5. Chronosystem

Addresses the element of time that affects the child.

Transactional Theory

Believes a bidirectional, reciprocal relationship between and infant and their caregiver as providing several points as the basis for intervention.

Transactional Theory- process

First, the infant or toddler stimulates the parents, either through his appearance or through his behavior. The parents then attribute some meaning to the child’s message. Finally, the parents react with some form of caregiving.

Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

Believes complex forms of thinking have origins in social interactions, rather than individual’s private explorations. Children learn from adults through scaffolding, which structures the child’s learning to their zone of proximal development, or current ability/developmental level.

Attachment Theory (Bowlby and Ainsworth)

Believes young children develop different qualities of attachment with their primary caregivers. These theorists made educated guesses about the effects that the different qualities of attachment have on the children’s behavior now and in the future.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Believes people are motivated to further their development because of needs that arise and the desire for growth.

Core Knowledge Theory

Infants have innate abilities and readiness to acquire information about the world. Instead of general learning abilities, infants have specific abilities for specific domains (Objects, numbers, agents, place, and shapes). 

Piaget’s Cognitive development Theory

Believes infants and children are actively constructing their understanding of the world through their play and exploration. The child then develops schemas, mental structures of his current understanding of the world.

Disequilibrium

Schemas are not adequate for exploring or explaining new information

Equilibrium

When the children's schemas and information presented is balanced.

Kuhl’s Perceptual Mapping Theory

Believes in a constructionist theory of learning and a relationship-based theory of development. The basic premise of how infants learn language is that infants are able to figure out the structure of language in the first year of life before they can speak (infants more capable than we think).

Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory

Believes that development moves forward as the young child finds the best solution to using his body to make something happen in his environment. The environment offers an opportunity for action, called an affordance.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Believes there should be an emphasis on self-efficacy, the ability of humans to set goals, problem solve, and reflect. He also emphasizes that what children believe about how effective they are influences how they act.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 

Believes that individuals go through eight distinct, predictable stages as they develop their sense of self and their relationships with others.

1st stage of Erikson’s Theory: Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth–18 mos. Infants learn that teachers/parents can be trusted to meet their needs and that the world is a safe pleasant place to grow up.

2nd stage of Erikson’s Theory: Autonomy vs. Doubt/ Shame

18 mos.–3 yrs. Toddlers discover that their actions are their own and enjoy independence, but they experience shame and doubt when corrected or criticized. 

3rd stage of Erikson’s Theory: Initiative and Guilt

3-6 yrs. Children work hard to be responsible for their bodies, their toys, and their actions. When they are irresponsible or criticized, they may experience guilt.

Theory and Research Cycle 

The benefit of a theory is that it helps us understand the possible relationship between separate events, for example, the quality of care that infants receive and their later behavior.

Research methods used with infants & toddlers

• Parent reports 

• Teachers reports 

• Observation

Research Locations

• Naturalistic settings (home, daycare): observe what the infants normally do  

• Laboratory settings: a specially designed research space to ask specific empirical questions 

Results from Romanian orphanage study 

Didn’t know right from wrong, many not developed emotionally and cognitively, and no bond with any adults. Brains were less developed due to this neglect.

Adult behaviors that lead to healthy relationships with children 

• Being responsive and affectionate 

• Being sensitive to children’s needs and distress 

• Be emotionally available 

• Be supportive of children's self-directed activities and autonomy 

• Share and focus 

• Support and encourage 

Anecdotal records & Running records, Documentation

This is a ‘snapshot’ of development that shows a sequence of events that is written in a factual way (only descriptions of what is seen or heard). This helps a reader who was not there visualize what happened.

Inferences

Following the observation, conclusions that the observer draws from the records/observations (e.g. motivations, intentions, and mental processes that drive the observed behavior).

When observing/anecdotal

• Describe a child’s feelings 

• Assign an attribute/personality characteristic to the child 

• Don’t add information about what the child is or has been like 

• Don’t add assumptions to what the child has done or the motivation(s) behind it 

Observer Biases

• Past experiences, beliefs, values

• Culture

• Presence (children may act differently around an unknown person compared to a known person)

Chromosome

Structures of genetic material, human body contains 46 in 23 pairs.

Sex Chromosome

Determine whether organism is male (XY) or female (XX).

DNA

Long strand of cell material that stores and transfers genetic information, deoxyribonucleic acid.

Gene

Segment of DNA contains coded instructions for growth/functioning of organism.

Allele

Form of a gene.

Genome

Entire set of DNAs found in the cell.

Genotype

An individual’s collection of genes/alleles inherited for a particular gene.

Phenotype

Individual’s observable traits, derived from genotype.

Dominant-Recessive Inheritance

Pattern of inheritance in which pair of chromosomes contains one dominant and only one recessive gene, but only the dominant gene is expressed in phenotype.

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygote shows phenotype that is in between homozygote phenotypes.

Codominance

Both genes expressed (e.g., blood type).

Polygenetic Inheritance

Expression of phenotypic characteristics due to interaction of multiple genes.

X-linked Inheritance

When a recessive characteristic is expressed because it is carried on the male’s X chromosome.

Prenatal genetic testing

Direct fetal prenatal testing: chorionic villus sampling & amniocentesis.

Gene x Environment interactions

Whether a “risky” gene results in a negative phenotype depends on the environment.

Epigenetics

Inheritance based on environmental modifications to gene expression.

Conception/Fertilization

Zygote

Germinal Period

(1-2 weeks).

30 hours after conception

first cell division

1 week after conception

blastocyst

Outer layer

Trophoblast- becomes support structures (placenta & amnion).

Inner cell/ embryonic disk

becomes embryo.

Embryonic Period

(3-8 weeks). Week 3 embryonic disk forms 3 layers.

1st layer: Ectoderm

Outer layer, becomes skin, hair, nails, sensory organs, and nervous system.

2nd layer: Mesoderm

Middle layer, become bones, muscle, reproductive system, & circulatory system.

3rd layer: Endoderm

Inner layer, constructs the digestive tube and the respiratory tube.

Week 5

All major organ systems begin developing, cells begin process of differentiation.

Week 6-7

External features begin to form. Heart cells begin electrical activity.

Week 8

Lungs start to form, arms and legs have grown.

Malnutrition

Folic acid deficiency.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

Alcohol while pregnant.

Low birth weight

Tobacco while pregnant.

Fetal Period

(9 weeks-birth)

9-10 weeks

Essential organs start to develop, limbs, toes, eyelids, ears take shape.

11-14 weeks

Genitals appear, face is well formed.

15-18 weeks

Fetus begins to move and stretch. Vernix (white stuff) and languo (white hair helps white stuff stick) develops.

19-21 weeks

Fetus can hear, movement more active.

22 weeks

Heartbeat can be heard with stethoscope; first bowel movement is made in intestinal tract.

23-30 weeks

Lungs develop surfactant (helps fill air sacs with air), rapid brain development.

31-34 weeks

Bones are fully developed, but soft, fast rate of physical growth, breathing is rhythmic.

35-37 weeks

Clear sleep/wake cycles, heart and blood vessels are fully developed, muscles and bones fully developed.

38-40 weeks

Head hair is thicker, fingernails grow, ready for birth.

Placenta

Releases hormones to get mother’s body ready to give birth (loosen joints, ligaments), and prepare for breastfeeding (storing glucose, changes in breast).

Anoxia

Fetal oxygen deprivation.

Neonate

Less than 4 weeks old.

APGAR Scale

Neonatal assessment with five subtests. Newborns are rated 1 minute after birth and again 5 minutes after birth.

Born 37 weeks or earlier.

Pre-term

Skin to skin care benefits

Regulate and stabilize heart-rate, breathing, body temperature, decreased crying, and sleep-wake cycles.

Brain Development in Infancy

Experience changes our brain, which in turn helps us to develop greater experience

Neuron

Cell that is specialized for receiving and transmitting neural impulse. B

asic cells of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Input structure of neuron, receives messages from other neural cells.

Axon

Portion of a nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Terminal Buttons

End of axon, releases neurotransmitters into spaces (synapses) between neurons.

Synaptogenesis

Creation of new synapses (connections) between neurons.

Synaptic exuberance

Burst in the production of synaptic connections between neurons.

Synaptic pruning

Connections between neurons that are used become stronger, whereas connections between neurons that are not used wither away. Contributes to brain’s efficiency.

Hunger

Sleep/wake cycles governed by:

Anger cry

Large volume of air through vocal cords.

Pain cry

Sudden onset, takes large breath of air and then lets loose.

Fussing

Indicates mild distress, soft in volume, unsteady whimper.

Basic/frustration

Not distinctive, happens for a variety of reasons.

Colic

Crying lasts for >3 hours a day, more than 3 days a week for more than 3 or more weeks.

Synaptogenesis

Creation of new synapses (connections between neurons).

Synaptic exuberance

Burst in the production of synaptic connections between neurons.

Neuronal communication types

Electrical Signal/Action potential in pre-synaptic neuron causes a release of neurotransmitters.

Breech

Feet pointed towards birth canal.

Very low birth weight (<3.5 lbs.) long-term problems

Small physical size, higher rates of long-term health problems, low IQ scores, behavioral problems.