American Government-Exam 2

blue law

Laws that regulate moral behavior, often related to Sunday activities or alcohol sales.

civil liberties

Individual rights protected by law from governmental interference.

civil rights

guarantees of equal treatment by government authorities

common-law right

Rights that have developed through court decisions and precedent.

conscientious objector

Someone who refuses military service due to moral/religious beliefs.

double jeopardy

The legal principle that a person cannot be tried for the same crime twice.

due process clause

A clause in the 14th amendment that guarantees fair treatment through the normal judicial system.

economic liberty

Right to own property and engage in voluntary trade without government interference.

eminent domain

The right of a government to take private property for public use with compensation.

establishment clause

A clause in the First Amendment prohibiting the establishment of religion by Congress.

exclusionary rule

Legal principle that excludes evidence obtained in violation of a defendant's constitutional rights.

free exercise clause

A clause in the First Amendment that protects individuals’ rights to practice their religion.

Miranda warning

A warning that must be given to a person who is in custody before interrogation.

obscenity

Material that is offensive or sexually explicit and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.

Patriot Act

A 2001 act that expanded law enforcement's surveillance and investigative powers.

plea bargain

An agreement between a defendant and prosecutor where the defendant pleads guilty to a lesser charge.

prior restraint

Government action that prohibits speech or other expression before it occurs.

probable cause

A reasonable basis for believing that a crime may have been committed.

right to privacy

The right to be free from government intrusion into personal matters.

search warrant

A legal document authorizing law enforcement to conduct a search.

selective incorporation

The constitutional doctrine ensuring that states cannot enact laws that infringe on the rights of citizens.

self-incrimination

The act of exposing oneself to prosecution by admitting to a crime.

Sherbert test

A test used to determine whether a person's free exercise rights are being violated.

symbolic speech

Nonverbal communication that conveys a political message.

undue burden test

A legal standard for determining whether a law that restricts access to abortion is unconstitutional.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

The Supreme Court case that ruled the Constitution protects the right to marital privacy.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

The landmark Supreme Court decision that recognized a woman's legal right to have an abortion.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

The Supreme Court case that established the requirement for Miranda warnings.

Mapp v. Ohio (1963)

A Supreme Court case that ruled evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment cannot be used in state courts.

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

The case that established the standard for limiting restrictions on free speech.

The New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)

A pivotal case that established the actual malice standard for press reports about public figures.

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

The Supreme Court case that protected flag burning as symbolic speech.

Near v. Minnesota (1931)

The decision that established prior restraint on publication as unconstitutional.

Loving v. Virginia (1966)

The Supreme Court case that invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage.

Kelo v. City of New London (2005)

The Supreme Court ruling that upheld the government's right to take private property for public use.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022)

The Supreme Court case that upheld a Mississippi law banning most abortions after 15 weeks.

Casey v. Planned Parenthood (1992)

A Supreme Court case that upheld the right to an abortion but allowed states to impose certain restrictions.

First Amendment

Protects freedoms of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition.

Second Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms.

Third Amendment

The amendment to the United States Constitution that prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent during peacetime

Fourth Amendment

Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures without a warrant or probable cause.

Fifth Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that protects individuals from self-incrimination, double jeopardy, and ensures due process of law

Sixth Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees the rights of criminal defendants, including the right to a public trial, an impartial jury,

Seventh Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees the right to a jury trial in civil cases.

Eighth Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

Ninth Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that states the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not mean that others do not exist.

Tenth Amendment

The amendment to the U.S

affirmative action

Policies designed to improve opportunities for historically excluded groups.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

A civil rights organization that advocated for Native American rights.

Black codes

Laws enacted in the South after the Civil War to restrict African Americans' rights.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

A landmark Supreme Court decision that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Chicano

A term used to describe a person of Mexican descent in the United States.

civil disobedience

The refusal to obey certain laws as a form of peaceful protest.

comparable worth

The concept that men and women should be paid equally for jobs of equal value.

coverture

A legal doctrine whereby a married woman's legal rights were subsumed by her husband's.

de facto segregation

Racial segregation that occurs in practice but not necessarily mandated by law.

de jure segregation

Racial segregation that is enforced by law.

direct action

Immediate, sometimes confrontational, action taken to achieve political change.

disenfranchisement

The revocation of the right to vote.

equal protection clause

Part of the 14th Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection under the law.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A proposed amendment to ensure equal rights under the law regardless of sex.

glass ceiling

An unofficial barrier to advancement in a profession, particularly affecting women and minorities.

grandfather clause

A law allowing individuals to bypass certain regulations if their grandfathers had the right prior to a specific date.

hate crime

A crime motivated by prejudice against a person's race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender.

intermediate scrutiny

A standard of judicial review used to evaluate laws that classify individuals based on gender.

Jim Crow laws

State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States.

literacy tests

Tests that were used to disenfranchise voters, particularly in regards to their ability to read or write.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

The Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine.

poll tax

A fee required to be paid before voting, often used to disenfranchise poor and minority voters.

rational basis test

A standard of review applied to laws not involving suspect classifications or fundamental rights.

Reconstruction

The period following the Civil War focused on rebuilding the South and integrating freed slaves into society.

Stonewall Inn

A bar in New York City that became a symbol of the LGBTQ+ rights movement after a police raid in 1969.

strict scrutiny

The highest standard of review used by courts to evaluate the constitutionality of laws limiting fundamental rights.

Title IX

A federal law prohibiting gender discrimination in federally funded education programs.

Trail of Tears

The forced removal of Native Americans from their homelands to designated Indian Territory.

understanding tests

Tests established to restrict voting that require individuals to interpret or explain complex texts.

white primary

Primary elections in the Southern United States in which only white voters were allowed to participate.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2014)

The Supreme Court case that legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.

agents of political socialization

Factors that influence an individual's political beliefs and behaviors.

bandwagon effect

The phenomenon where people do something primarily because others are doing it.

Bradley effect

The theory that white voters might conceal their true intentions and vote differently than they poll.

classical liberalism

A political ideology that values individual freedom and limited government intervention.

communism

A political theory advocating for a classless society and communal ownership of resources.

covert content

Messages or information that is not openly disclosed or easily detectable.

diffuse support

Support that is general rather than focused on specific policies or actions.

exit poll

Polling conducted as voters leave the polling station to predict electoral outcomes.

fascism

A far-right authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology.

favorability poll

Polls that measure how well a candidate is liked by the public.

heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make decisions quickly.

horserace coverage

News coverage that focuses on who is winning or losing in a political race rather than issues.

ideology vs. partisanship

Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, while partisanship refers to loyalty to a particular political party.

leading question

A question that suggests a particular answer or indicates a preference.

margin of error

A measure of the uncertainty in polling results.

modern conservatism

A political ideology advocating for limited government, free markets, and traditional values.

modern liberalism

A political ideology that advocates for social justice and government intervention in the economy.

overt content

Messages or information that is clear and openly expressed.

political culture

The shared beliefs, values, and practices that shape a country's political life.

political elite

Individuals or groups that hold significant power and influence in politics.

political socialization

The process by which individuals learn and develop their political beliefs and values.

polarization

The division of society into distinct and opposing groups with sharply differing views.