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HM: Milner
Aim: To better understand the role of the hippocampus in memory
Sample: 1, HM
Procedure: longitudinal study, surgery, psychometric testing (IQ), observation, interviews w/ him & family, cognitive testing (memory recall, learning tasks), MRI
Results: above average IQ, could acquire episodic knowledge but not semantic knowledge, had capacity for working memory
Conclusion: The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term to long-term. ST memory is not stored in the hippocampus. The memory systems in the brain constitute a highly specialized and complex system.
HM: milner - link to localization
This study supports the theory of localization as the results demonstrate that the hippocampus plays a key role in converting memories of experiences.
HM: Milner - link Models of memory (Multi-Store Model)
This study supports the theory of a multi-store model as demonstrated by the results which show that HM still had capacity for working memory but could not aquire semantic knowledge.
HM: Milner - link to ethics
The study has multiple ethical concerns such as informed consent. As HM did not have the capacity to convert ST to LT, it was not possible to know if he understood and was able to give informed consent. Furthermore, as he was subject to routine observation and tests it could have resulted in emotional distress.
HM: Milner - link to research methods
This study was a longitudinal case study that used a variety of methods to understand the role of the hippocampus in memory. Milner used method triangulation of interviews of HM and family, psychometric testing such as IQ tests, cognitive testing such as memory recall and learning tasks and observation. This triangulation of methods allowed the researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of his capacity for memory formation.
Maguire
Aim: to see whether the brains of london taxi drivers would be different as a result of their exceptional knowledge of the city and the many hours they spend behind the wheel navigating the streets of london.
Sample: 16 right-handed male taxi drivers that did the ‘knowledge test’ and had been driving for 1.5+ years. 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis
Procedure: Single-blind study, compared MRI brain scans of the taxi drivers and the others. Voxel based morphology (density of grey matter) & pixel counting (area of hippocampus)
Results:
Localization: posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers was significantly larger compared to the control subjects. The anterior hippocampi were significantly smaller
Neuroplasticity: Volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver.
No differences in other parts of the brain
Conclusion:
the posterior hippocampus is involved when previously learned spatial information is used.
The anterior hippocampal region may be more involved during the encoding of new environmental layouts.
The hippocampus may change in response to environmental demands.
The hippocampus is responsible for spacial memories and this can be seen from the results of the study which showed that the taxi drivers has significantly larger area of hippocampus due to their extensive training and experience
Maguire - link to localization
This study supports the theory of localization, as the participants had a significantly larger hippocampus as measured in the MRI scans.
Maguire - link to neuroplasticity
The results of this study support the theory of neuroplasticity as the taxi drivers had a significantly larger hippocampus as measured using pixel counting.
Maguire - link to research techniques
the restults of the maguire study used MRI scans to measure the volume and area of the hippocampus. It was seen through the use of VBM how taxi drivers who had been driving for many years had denser neural pathways. This study also used pixel counting to measure the area of the posterior hippocampus. Thus, we can see how MRI scans are useful in investigating the changes that happen to the brain due to the environment.
Antonova
Aim: to determine the role of acetylcholine in spatial memory formation
Sample: 20 adult males, mean age of 28
Procedure: double blind, random allocation, true experiment, repeated measures, spatial navigation test. Acclimated ppt to video game, randomly allocated them to control or experimental group, injected with scopolomine or saline 70-90 mins before starting the fMRI & video game, ppt had to learn location of the pole, then the screen would go blank for 30 seconds before reappearing in a different part of the arena, total of 6 trial. Ppt returned 3-4 weeks later and redid it with opposite allocation (repeated measures)
Results: w/ inhibitor → significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus. Slightly but not noticeable, higher rate of error in experimental group
Conclusion: acetylcholine appears to play a key role in the encoding of spatial memories in humans
Antonova - link to neuroplasticity
The results of the study showed that the experimental group who received the acetylcholine inhibitor, scopolomine, had a significant decrease in activity in the hippocampus, as shown by the fMRI. It also showed that the inhibition did not have a significant impact on performance and number of mistakes made. Thus, it concludes that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine may play an. important role in the encoding of spatial memory in humans.
Antonova - link to techniques
This study employs the use of fMRI to study the activity of the hippocampus when inhibited by scopolomine. The use of this technique is crucial to understanding many topics of investigation such as localization and neuroplasticity. Antonova’s study demonstrates clearly the importance of standardized tools that can be looked at by a variety of scientists, allowing for an unbiased interpretation.
Mcgaugh & Cahill
Aim: to investigate the role of adrenaline hormone in the creation of memories
Sample: no sample was described
Procedure: 2 groups (boring/mundane story, emotional story), emotional rating 1-10, 2 weeks later memory recall test was given
Results: ppts who saw the emotional story demonstrated better recall than those that saw the mundane one (more specific with more details)
Conclusion: adrenaline affects the creation of memories
Note: there are 2 studies but focusing on study 1 is easier
Mcgaugh & Cahill - link to hormones / hormones & behavior
The results of the study show that those with the more emotionally arousing story had a better recall of specific details and more details of the slides. This supports the theory that adrenaline, which is released in moments of emotional arousal, plays a role in the creation of flashbulb memories as demonstrated by the difference in recall between the emotional story and the mundane one. Furthermore, a follow-up study which involved placing the ppts in an fMRI machine demonstrated that the amygdala had higher levels of activation during the emotionally arousing stories, supporting the conclusion that the hormone adrenaline plays a role in the formation of memories.
Mcgaugh & Cahill - link to emotions on cognition
Upon looking at the results of the study conducted by Mcgaugh and Cahill showing that those with the more emotionally arousing story had better recall, they are able to provide support to the theory of the effect of emotions on memory. Specifically that emotion plays a role in the creation of flashbulb memories as demonstrated by the differences in recall between the emotional story and the mundane one. It can therefore be concluded that the cognitive process of forming memories can be influenced by emotion, leading to the formation of vivid flashbulb memories in which there is a higher level of recall as well as in greater detail.
Wedekind (smelly t-shirt)
Background info: MHC→ major histocompatability complex (genes that play role in immune system)
Aim: to determine whether MHC would determine the mate choise
Sample: 49 females (oral contraceptives were noted), 44 males
Procedure; double-blind. Men wore t-shirt for 2 nights (perfume free detergent, soap, no deo, spicy food, tobacco, alcohol, sexual activity). Women, used nose spray for 14 days, second week of menstruation smelled 7 t-shirts in cardboard box (used novel ‘perfume’ as palette cleanser), ranked: intensity, pleasentness, sexiness (0-10)
Results: Women scored more pleasant when MHC differed to their own. Was reversed for those that used contraception
Conclusion: MHC may influence human mate choice. Supports existence of pheremones.
Wedekind - link to pheremones
The results of the study support the existence of pheremones as the results demonstrated that the women were more likely to rate as pleasent when MHC differed to their own.
Wedekind - link to genes
The results of this study support the research into genetics as the results permit the researches to gain a further understanding of the role of genetics in behavior and how it may potentially affect the choice of a mate.
Wedekind - link to evolution
The results of this study support the research into evolutionary genetics as the results permit the researches to gain a further understanding of the role of genetics in behavior and how it may potentially affect the choice of a mate. This allows them to gain a deeper comprehension into how genetics and its effect on these choices may have had an effect on evolution.
Kendler et al
Aim: to investigate the concordance rate of major depressive disorder amongn monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Sample: 15,493 pairs of twins
Procedure: phone einterviews by trained interviewers from 1998-2003, used screening test DSM-IV
Results: - 8056 twins met criteria for diagnosis, 322 twins voluntarily discussed history of depression
Conclusion:
concordance rate was higher in MZ twins that DZ twins.
Concordance rate was higher in females
Kendler et al - link to genetics
The results of this study supported the theory that genetics plays a role in the development of depression as demonstrated by the results which showed that MZ twins had a higher concordance rate than DZ twins.
Landry & bartling
Aim: to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence the recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall
Sample: 34 undergrad students
Procedure: independent measures, letters in random order showed for 5secs, 10 times,
control: saw letters, wait 5 secs, write
experimental: saw letters, wait 5 secs, while waiting reapeat 1,2 , write
Results: e group lower recall than c, mean recall e: 45%, c: 76%, standard deviation nearly identical, T-test significant difference
Conclusion: supports experimental hypothesis, in line with WMM, articulatory suppression is preventing rehearsal in the phonological loop
Landry & Bartling - link to models of memory (working memory model)
This study supports the theory of WMM as it states that a dual-task, both in the phonological loop, would affect memory recall. This was shown by the results, giving evidence to the working memory model.
Glanzer & Cunitz
Aim: to investigate the recency effect
Sample: 6 army-enlisted men
Procedure: repeated measures, done individually
15 word lists, 1 syllable words, 2secs interval, read aloud by researcher
when done, shown # = write or number 0-9 = count from that number
3 conditions: immediate recall, delayed recall (10secs), delayed recall (30secs)
Results:
immediate = primacy and recency effect
delayed (10) = reduced recency effect
delayed (30): no trace of recency effect
Conclusion: STM and LTM are 2 seperate stores. Information moves from STM to LTM if rehearsed but gradually decays if not. Duration of STM is around 30secs.
Glanzer & Cunitz - link to models of memory (multi-store model)
This study supports the theory put forward by the MSM in which they propose 2 seperate stores for memory. The existence of STM is supported by the results of the study where they show that delayed recall showed a reduction in the recency effect
Bartlett
Aim: to investigate how innformation changes with each reproduction and to find out why the infromation changes
Sample: british men
Procedure: 2 conditions, ppts did not know the aim of the study. Story was a native american tale.
repeated reproduction: ppts heard story and had to retell it over a period of days, weeks, months, years
Serial reproduction; ppt heard story and had to tell it to another ppt
Results: very few recalled the story accurately (distorted it). Pattern of errors: assimilation, leveling, sharpening)
Conclusion: bartlett concluded that unfamiliar material changes when it is recalled, it becomes shorter, simpler and more stereotypical as it is likely changed to fit ones schema (may be due to effect of schema on memory).
Bartlett - link to schema theory
This study supports schema theory and its effect on memory, as demonstrated by the results of the study that showed that during the retelling of the story, participants omitted and assimilated information to better fit their own schema.
Bartlett - link to reconstructive memory
This study supports the theory that memory is unreliable as it can be recalled incorectly due to it being changed to assimilate into existing schemas. The results of this study support this as it demonstrates that very few recalled the story accurately and exhibited patterns of error in which the assimilated, leveled and committed details from the story. Providing evidence to the theory that memory can be unreliable.
Bartlett - link to effect of culture on cognition
This study supports the theory that culture has an effect on cognition, in this case memory, as demonstrated by the results of the study that showed that during the retelling of the story, participants made the story shorter, simpler and more stereotypical to better fit their own schema of the culture.
Tversky & Kahneman
Aim: to investigate the influence of anchoring bias on decision making
Sample: highschool students
Procedure: idependent samples design, 2 conditions, ppts were given 5 secs to estimate the answer
ascending (1×2×3…)
descending (8×7×6…)
Results:
ascending median answer: 512 ( used 1 as anchor)
descending median answer: 2250 (used 8 as anchor)
Conclusion: the results support the theory of anchoring bias
Tversky & Kahneman - link to thinking and decision making (dual process model)
The results support the theory of a dual process model as the study demonstrated the effect of the anchoring bias as ppts gave a higher estimate when they had a higher anchor, supporting the role of system 1 in the dual process model as they gave a quick answer without thinking logically.
Tversky & Kahneman - link to biases in thinking and decision making
The results of this study show that ppts in the first condition with a low anchor had a significant lower estimate compared to the second condition with a higher anchor. This gives evidence to anchoring bias in thinking and decision making.
Loftus & Palmer
Aim: to investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of the speed
Sample: 45 students
Procedure: independent samples design, 5 groups of 9 students, each group watched 7 films of traffic accidents, ppts asked to estimate speed of car. each group had different leading verb: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted
Results: mean speed for smashed was highest, mean speed for contacted was lowest
Conclusion: the ppt’s memory could be changed by using suggestive questions
Loftus & Palmer - link to reconstructive memory
The results showed that the critical word in the sentence consistently affected the ppts answers. This allows us to question the reliability of memory as they recalled the events of the video differently based on the suggestive word used. Providing evidence to the theory of reconstructive memory that states that memory can be unreliable and subject to influence.
Loftus & Palmer - link to biases in thinking and decision making
The results of this study show that ppts estimates of speed were influenced by the use of a leading word as the results showed that those with the ‘smashed’ condition had a higher mean speed than those with ‘contacted’. This gives evidence to the theory that thinkng and decision making can be biased and influenced.
Tajfel
Aim: to investigate if intergorup discrimination would take place
sample: 48 boys aged 14-15 in a london middle school
procedure:
asked to vote on 12 paintings, boys were allocated to 1 of 2 groups
each boy was asked to award points based on system 1 or 2
system 1: points add up to 15 i.e. 8-ingroup, 7-outgroup
system 2: high ingroup = really high outgroup, mid = same in same out, low in = 1 out
Results:
system 1: ppts awarded points to members of their in-group
system 2: low points to in-group, maximising the difference between in & out group
Conclusion: intergroup discrimination was demonstrated as they favored members of their ingroup. Even in arbitrary groupings participants identified with their own group and showed bias by giving them more points.
Tajfel - link to social identity theory
Tajfel’s findings support social identity theory, illustrating that even minimal group distinctions are enough to provoke discrimination against an outgroup.
Tajfel - link to formation of stereotypes
Tajfel’s study supports the theory behind the formation of stereotypes stating that social categorization leads to the formation of new schemas, leading to stereotypes. This was demonstrated by the results of the study as even minimal group distinctions are enough to form stereotypes and provoke discrimination against an outgroup.
Bandura (bashing bobo)
Aim:
to explore if children exposed to aggressive models will reproduce the behavior if given the opportunity
to explore if children will imitate the behavior of a same-sex model to a greater degree than one of opposite sex
Sample: 36 boys, 36 girls aged 37-69 months. 1 male adult, 1 female adult
Results:
agg model → more agg acts than with non-agg model
boys more agg than girls
boys w/male agg showed more agga
girls w/male agg showed more physical agg, w/female more verbal
effects of gender reversed w/number of times bobo was punched
Bandura - link to social cognitive theory
The results support social cognitive theory in the sense that behavior can be learned by observing and imitating. It also supports the prediction that identification with the model increases the likelihood of imitating behavior.
Bandura - link to ethics
Bandura - link to research methods
This study used a variety of methods including a pre-test that composed of a questionnaire to ensure that the children had a similar baseline aggression. For the actual procedure they used covert observation. This triangulation of methods allowed the researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the modeling behavior of children.
Steele & Aronson
Aim: to investigate how stereotype threat affects test performance
Sample: 114 male and female, black and white undergrad stanford students
Procedure: independant design, randomly assigned but equal numbers. IV: race of ppt, test description (intelectual ability or problem solving skills).
Results:
problem solving = both performed the same
intelligence = black ppts performed significantly worse
Conclusion: Black participants performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition, but in the non-threat condition their performance equaled that of their white counterparts.
Steele & Aronson - link to effect of stereotypes
Chen et al
Aim: to investigate the role of confusian work dynamism on an individual’s buying habits
Sample: 149 bi-cultural uni students (singaporean-american)
Procedure: randomly assigned, naturalistic
primed to make one identity more prominent (shown pics emblematic of the culture and asked to write down as many as they could remember
given shopping scenario, told to buy book, could pay extra to have it in 1 day
asked to list 3 politicians that came to mind
Results:
ppts primed with western culture placed higher value on immediate consumption
3 politicians were from the culture they were primed for
Conclusion: Confucian work dynamism played a role in their shopping behavior
Chen et al - link to effect of culture on cognition
This study supports the theory that culture has an effect on cognition. The singaporean primed participants demonstrated a long-term orientation, opting to save money in the present, while the american primed participants demonstrated a short-term orientation. These results support the theory that a person’s culture plays an important role in cognition.
Chen et al - link to cultural dimensions
This study gives evidence to the importance of cultural dimensions, in this case, the confusian work dynamis. The results of the study show that the singaporean primed participants demonstrated a long-term orientation, opting to save money in the present, while the american primed participants demonstrated a short-term orientation. These results support the theory that cultural dimensions, in this case the confucian work dynamism, plays an important role in cognition.
Chen et al - link to decision making
This study supports the research behind decision making, demonstrating that it can be influenced, in this case by their culture. The results of the study show that the singaporean primed participants decided to save money in the short term, while the american primed participants prefered to have immediate results. These results support the theory that decision making can be influenced, in this case by culture.
Martin & Halverson
Aim: to investigate the role of gender schema on a child’s ability to recall information that was not consistent with their gender schema
Sample: 48 kids (24m, 24f), aged 5-6, enrolled in local kindergardens
Procedure:
given SERLI test to assess their level of gender stereotyping
Presented with 16 pictures ( one at a time), where a person was participating in an activity, i.e. playing with doll
kids asked to identify sex of person
weren’t told they had to remember the pictures
1 week later, asked what they had seen in pics (probed recall) → 16 they had seen, 8 they hadn’t (test for response bias)
Asked to rate confidence on 4 point scale
Results:
both boys and girls were more likely to misremember the sex of an actor on inconsistent pictures than on consistent pics
both were more confident on their recollection of consistent pics
Conclusion: children had distroted memories of pictures that were not consistent with their gender schema. As they made mistakes when initially identifying the sex of the people it is evidence of distoortion in encoding as well as recall.
Martin & Halverson - link to enculturation
This study supports the theory that enculturation affects the formation of gender schemas in children and therefore affect the encoding a recall of information that is inconsistant with their schema, as shown by the greater error when viewing images not consistant with the gender stereotypes, leading to a distrotion of their memory.
enculturation (family) → gender schema → gender stereotypes
Martin & Halverson - link to schema theory
This study supports schema theory and its effect on the encoding and recall of memories that is inconsistant with their schema, as shown by the greater error when viewing images not consistant with the gender stereotypes, leading to a distrotion of their memory.
gender schema → gender stereotypes
Martin & Halverson - link to effects of stereotypes
Miranda & Matheny
AIm: to investigate which factors in the lives of latino immigrants in the US would lower acculturation stress
sample: random sample of 197 members of 2 service agencies
procedure: ppts completed a questionnaire and standardixed tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, coping strategies for stress
results: immigrants with effective coping strategies, good english proficiency, strong family structure, and more time spent in the US were less likely to experience acculturative stress
Miranda & Matheny - link to acculturation (protective factors)
Lueck & Wilson
Aim: to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress
sample: 2095 asian americans, 1271 of them were 1st gen who were 18+ when they came to the US
Procedure:
semi structures interviews w/interviewers of similar cultural and linguistic background.
measured level of acculturative stress; impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and socioeconomic status.
random sample contacted to validate data post-interview
Results: 70% were found to have acculturative stress, risk factors include:
not speaking their native language well
not speaking enligh well
negative treatment (xenophobia, discrimination…)
Lueck & Wilson - link to acculturation (risk factors)
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