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Natue v Nurtue
are our human traits present at birth (nature) or do they develop through experience (nurture)
Evolutionary Psychology:
study of evolution of behavior & mind; uses principles of natural selection
natural slection
Charles Darwin’s principle that inherited traits enable an organism to survive + reproduce in particular environment will most likely be passed onto succeeding generations
Behavior Genetics:
study of relative power / limits of genetic + environmental influences on behavior (how genetics / environment influence behavior)
human nature
Evolutionary psychologists use Darwin’s principle of natural selection to understand behavior + mental processes
Organism’ varied offspring compete for survival --- mutation (random error in gene replication that leads to a change)
Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organisms; reproductive & survival chances
Offspring that survive more likely to pass on genes
Eugenics:
aims to “eradicate” genetic defects & improve genetic makeup through selective human breeding
Environment:
NONgenetic influence (i.e. prenatal nutrition, experiences of people and things around us)
Heredity:
genetic transfer of characteristics from parent → offspring; Ex: 2 people may have gene for high intelligence level, but individual with lack of stimulation to academically excel may not reach full potential, while individual constantly motivated intellectual will be more likely to intellectually excel
Genes:
biochemical units of heredity
genome
entire set of DNA / genetic information found in organism
humans + chimps ~96% the same genetically
twin & adoption studies
1of ways to study nature v nurture argument
Identical (monozygotic) twins:
individuals who developed from 1 fertilized egg that split in 2, creating 2 genetically identical organisms; may not always have equal number copies of genes repeated in genome
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins:
individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no closer than ordinary siblings but shared prenatal environment
Twin studies:
allow researchers to examine role of genes in development of trait or disorder; comparisons between monozygotic twins & dizygotic twins conducted to evaluate degree of genetic + environmental influence on specific trait
Studies have shown that environment shared by a family’s children has little impact on their personality--- just because you’re raised in same environment does not mean you will have similar personality as your parents/siblings
Interaction:
interplay that occurs when effect of 1 factor (environment) depends on another factor (heredity)
Example: If you walk all summer barefoot your feet will become more callused. Your friend wears shoes and is tender-footed ---biological adaptation to environmental changes
Epigenetics:
study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression
Example: If a child is sleep deprived or nutritionally deprived they might not reach their biological/genetic height
Nervous System:
body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of peripheral & central nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS):
brain, spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
sensory & motor neurons connecting CNS to rest of body
Nerves:
bundle of axons that form neural cables connecting CNS with muscles, glands, sensory organs
Sensory (afferent) neurons:
carry incoming information from body’s tissues and sensory receptors to brain, spinal cord
Motor (efferent) neurons:
carry outgoing information from brain, spinal cord to muscles and glands
Interneurons:
within brain, spinal cord; communicate internally & process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs
Autonomic Nervous System:
division of PNS that controls glands, muscles of internal organs; involuntary (without conscious thought) — heart beating, lungs breathing
Sympathetic Nervous System:
division of
autonomic nervous system that arouses
body, mobilizing its energy; “fight or flight”
Parasympathetic Nervous System:
division of autonomic nervous system that calms body, conserving its energy; “rest and digest”; brings cody back to homeostasis
Somatic Nervous System (AKA Skeletal Nervous System):
division of PNS that controls body’s skeletal muscles
Brain:
controls most of 5 functions of body, including awareness, movement, thinking, speech, 5 senses
Spinal cord:
extension of brain; carries messages to / from brain to rest of body
Reflex:
simple, automatic response to sensory stimulus; Ex: knee-jerk stimulus
Neuron:
nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system
cell body
contains cell nucleus
dendrites
receive messages from terminal branches of sending neuron
Glial cells (“glue of Nervous System”): t
type of cell that provides physical + chemical support to neurons & maintains their environment
Multiple Sclerosis
Autoimmune disorder; body’s immune system attacks + destroys myelin sheath of neurons → disrupts signals nerves send to body; diminishes muscle control, can impair cognition
Myasthenia Gravis
Progressive autoimmune disease; body produces antibodies against / attacks acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions (connection point between motor neuron + muscle fiber); symptoms = muscle weakness in eyes, mouth, throat, limbs
Action potential:
neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down axon (neurotransmitter transported from dendrites → terminal branches of axon → next neuron); will only be generated when excitatory impulses > inhibitory impulses
threshols
level of stimulation required to trigger action potential
refractory period
brief resting pause after neuron has fired / initiated action potential (more difficult / impossible for neuron to produce another action potential during this time); subsequent action potentials cannot occur until axon returns to resting state; neuron cannot “re-fire” until it reaches refractory period; prevents action potential from happening too quickly again + signal moving backwards
all-or-nothing response
neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing depending on whether threshold is met (no partial responses); for a certain neuron, action potential stays the same regardless of strength of stimulus
synapse
(a.k.a. Synaptic gap, synaptic cleft): junction between axon tip of sending neuron + dendrite / cell body of receiving neuron
neurotranmsitters
chemical messengers that cross synaptic gap between neurons; released by sending neuron → neurotransmitters travel across synapse → bind to receptor sites of receiving neuron (influence whether receiving neuron will generate a neural impulse)
reuptake
neurotransmitters reabsorption by sending / presynaptic neuron (prevent accumulation of neurotransmitters in synapse → excessive / prolonged stimulation of postsynaptic neuron, terminates signaling by neurotransmitter once signal has been transmitted to postsynaptic neuron, allows neurons to recycle neurotransmitters)
Acetylcholine
excites skeletal muscles; inhibits heart action; memory
malfunction: Alzheimer’s disease
dopamine
movement; learning: attention; motivation, reward
Parkinson's disease (too little); Schizophrenia (too much); Substance abuse
s
serotonin
Norepinephrine
sleep; arousal / alertness; mood
Depression
GABA
chief inhibitor; regulates arousal / alertness
some anxiety disorders; some seizure disorders
g;utamate
chief excitatory neurotransmitter;
many diverse functions
Neural death following head injuries
endorphines
pain suppression
Some indication of link to mood
substance p
carries pain signals
Some indication of a link to depression
Agonist:
molecule that ↑ action of neurotransmitter; usually has very similar structure to neurotransmitter allowing it to mimic actions of neurotransmitter by binding to specific brain receptors
Ex: morphine binds to neurons to heighten pleasure / decrease pain
Antagonist:
molecule that inhibits or blocks action of neurotransmitter
Ex: memantine blocks glutamate receptors in brain, helping reduce excitotoxicity (neuronal damage; associated with neurodegenerative diseases)
endocrine system
Body’s “slow” chemical communication system; set of glands, fat tissue that secrete hormones into bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through bloodstream + affect other tissues
hypothalamus
secretes hormones that stimulate / suppress release of hormones in pituitary gland
arenaline
hormone / neurotransmitter secreted by adrenal glands typically during stressful, exciting, or highly emotional situations
leptin
hormone released by fat cells; works together with ghrelin to regulate appetite
Ghrelin
hormone produced primarily by gastrointestinal tract; helps to regulate appetite
Melatonin
hormone released primarily by brain’s pineal
gland; regulates body’s sleep-wake cycle
Oxytocin
produced by hypothalamus, released by pituitary gland; known as “love hormone”; plays key role in socializing, romantic relationships, parent-child bonding
Psychoactive Drug:
chemical substance that alters brain, causing changes in perceptions + moods (i.e. seeing things that aren’t there, hearing things that aren’t there, distance / depth perception)
Substance Use Disorder:
disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption; Ex: someone who continuously uses alcohol even if it may cost them their family, job, money etc.
Near-death experience:
altered state of consciousness reported after “close brush with death”; often similar to drug-induced hallucination
Tolerance:
diminishing effect with regular use of same dose of drug → forces user to UP DOSAGE in order to experience drug’s effect; can also be built up with medication
Addiction:
compulsive substance use that continues despite harmful consequences; considered psychological disorder
Withdraw:
discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing an addictive drug / behavior; physical / psychological symptoms after coming off a drug
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Alcohol
Initial high followed by relaxation + disinhibition; may not be able to do certain things after using
Depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions
Reduce anxiety, can be used to help other disorders
Depress NS activity, can be prescribed to induce sleep / reduce anxiety, in large doses can impair memory & judgment
Rush of euphoria, relief from pain, mimics effects of endorphins / norepinephrine
Depressed physiology, slows down NS (slower cognitively, reduced memory), agonizing withdrawal once you come off it & don’t have another supply