Unit 4: Reformation, in Chronological Order.

For AP European History, based on McKays "History of Western Society" (14th Ed) and Barons Premium 14th Edition prep for AP Euro.

Clerical reasons for the reformation:

1. Corruption, with the sale of church offices (Simony)

2. Sale of Indulgences

3. Nepotism (The placing of family members in high places of the church)

4. Absenteeism (A bishop holding multiple dioceses and not attending them, making a poor, underfunded priest have to care for the whole diocese.)

5. General moral corruption of the clergy.

Intellectual causes of the reformation:

1. Humanism itself challenged the traditions of Christianity. Humanism emphasized the glorification of humanity, while traditional Christianity emphasized the glorification of God. 

2. The educational system of Humanism allowed people to see different perspectives, which challenged the church’s monopoly on knowledge. 

3. Humanism contradicted the church’s emphasis on salvation.

Economic reasons for the Reformation:

1. The prosperity of the European states (partly due to the exploration of the New World, and also the prosperity of merchants) caused people to be displeased with the Church’s “Virtue of poverty”; they were more likely to accept a faith which justified their newfound riches.
   

2. High taxes by Nobles and the Church made people feel angry. 

3. The church owns a lot of land. 

All of the following reasons made people feel quite angry at the church for being hypocritical.  

Prestigious reasons:

1. The Babylonian Captivity of the church (1378-1417) occurred when the French king Phillip the Fair pressured the pope to move the Papacy to Avignon (1309-1376). The popes during the reign lost their historical authority, the sea of Rome, and also focused on mainly economics and politics, neglecting their spiritual needs. In 1377 Pope Gregory XI brought the Papacy back to Rome, and died shortly afterward. Pope Urban VI was elected, and he began to seek reform. He attacked clerical luxury, and denounced certain Cardinals and Bishops. These Cardinals moved to Avignon, and elected a new pope. Thus the Schism began, and a council at Pisa was held in 1409 to resolve the two antipopes, this council made a third pope. Finally, in the council of Constance at (1414-1418) the church finally resolved itself. All three were deposed, and a new pope Martin V was elected. During Pisa, there were attempts at reform, however Martin blocked it. Jan Hus who wanted to reform the church and denied Papal Authority was burned, along with all attempts of reform being ended.

2. During the Renaissance, Popes focused on secular politics rather then spiritual issues.  

Religious Reformers:

1. John Hus (1372-1415) a fellow reformer (who was impacted by Wycliffe) who called for a reform of the Catholic Church, he denied Papal authority, denied indulgences, and called for the bible to be translated to the Vernacular. Hus’s followers made a revolt, and a Hussite church was formed in Bohemia which survived into the Protestant ref. 

2. John Wycliffe (1330-1384) a English Scholar, Theologian, and reformer. He believed in the fact that the bible is the only base for any Christian belief, and that papal and secular power has no foundation in the scriptures. 

3. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) a Dutch Christian humanist, theologian, and Catholic Priest. He wrote a lot, but his most famous work is The Education Of A Christian Prince, which explains a prince’s character based on the bible and classical authors, and The Prince of Folly (1504 and 1509), a satirical attack on Religious Institutions, politics, and economics. He also translated the bible, and believed all women and all people should be able to read it.

All of these caused the diminishing importance of sacraments, and the decreased influence of clergy. 

Political Causes for Ref:

1. Monarchs hated the Church and its vast lands, making them less loyal to the Catholic Church.

2. Monarchs resisted Papal claims on national churches.

3. Princes of Germanic states despised Charles V, who attempted to centralize the HRE. 

4. Protestantism helped Germanic princes resist the HRE’s emperor. 

Printing Press:

A new technology which allowed for ideas to spread far and wide, and made it unable for the church to suppress ideas.

1517

1. Johann Tetzel (c. 1465-1519) is selling indulgences in just outside of Wittenberg authorized by Pope Leo X in order to help build St. Peters Basilica. He famously said “As soon as the gold in the casket rings; the rescued soul to heaven springs.” He argued that indulgences would give people less time in Purgatory.

2. Martin Luther (1483-1546) a Roman Catholic priest, monk and theologian, condemned the sales of indulgences, and denied Papal authority. He nailed his 95 thesis in 1517. The printing press helped him advance his ideas.

1519-1520 

When an appeal to Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521) went unanswered, Luther began to formally establish his beliefs. 

1. Sola Fide (Salvation by faith alone)

2. Sola Scriptura (The bible is the only infallible authority)

3. Grace of God ALONE brings absolution, not confession nor indulgences. 

4. Baptism and Communion are the only sacraments 

5. Clergy are not superior to laity. (Destroyed monastic communities) 

6. The church is subordinate to the state in anything non-spiritual. 

1520

Luther famously burns a Papal bull (which ordered for him to recant) and is officially excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Charles V wanted to burn Luther, but Fredrick of Saxony convinced him (due to a debt Charles owned) to call a meeting first. 

1521

The diet of worms is held, he is called before a council of the best Theologians of the Catholic Church. Luther is asked if the works are his, then to recant. Luther accepts the works as his, but refuses to recant. Saying: “I neither can nor will I recant anything, since it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience.” He was then saved by Fredrick of Saxony, this support shows that:

1. The display of how religion is used to challenge political authority.

2. The support shows the overlap between religion being used for political and economic competition.

3. Events like this and the 30 Years war became the basis for challenging religious institutions.

1520s

Lutheranism spreads, Charles V cannot reply due to him fighting the Ottoman Turks and the French. Northern Europe embraces Lutheranism.

1521

Anabaptists (or Radical Protestants) began to spread throughout the Germanic state.

1522 

A league of knights, under the leadership of Franz von Sickengen, converted to Lutheranism and attacked the Catholic princes in the Rhineland. This clash was lost, but it encouraged Germanic princes to convert to Lutheranism. And it also showed how much financial gain was brought with confiscating Church lands. 

1524-1526

Luther’s ideas spread to a variety of radical religious sects that formed a coalition that demanded reform based on how early Christians lived. They demanded the abolition of Manorialism (Medieval Feudalism). Luther initially supported them, but then turned against them. Calling them savages and asking the German princes to kill them. The German Peasant Revolt ended in failure and a gigantic death toll. This event is good evidence for how Religious ideas helped challenge Political systems.

1529

The Diet of Speyer refused to recognize the right of German princes to determine the religion of their subjects.

1531

The League of Schmalkalden is formed by the German Protestant Princes to defend themselves against the Emperor. Charles V asked the Pope to create a council that would try to reunite with the Lutherans. The pope, out of fear for the loss of Papal Prestige, declined. Making the reuniting of Western Christendom forever lost.

1530s

Reformation spreads beyond Germany.

1531 

The Swiss reformer Zwingli (1484-1531) was killed during the Swiss religious civil war. The Peace of Cappel, which followed from 1529 to 1531, allowed the Swiss to determine their own religion. (Remember, Zwingli and Luther disagreed on the Eucharist.) 

1534

Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549) assumed office as the first ‘reform’ pope.

The Act of Supremacy by Henry VIII made Henry the leader of the Anglican Church.

The Jesuit order is created. Led by St. Ignatius of Loyola.

They attempt:

1. Jesuits serve as advisors to Catholic Kings

2. They spread far and wide to convert the Heathen

3. They hold the Inquisition, (Clerical Courts that convict and try religious dissenters)

4. They establish catholic schools.

1534-1539

The English Church confiscates Roman Catholic lands, and retributes them to Nobles and people who support the Anglican Church.

1536

John Calvin publishes his Institutes on the Christian Religion. He agreed on most issues with Luther, but not on the role of the State in Church Affairs. Calvin also argued for:

1. Predestination; God has chosen before the creation of the World who goes to Heaven and who doesn’t. A sign of the elect (those who went to heaven) was material prosperity. This gave cause to Puritans who called for the avoidance of poverty and the rise of capitalism.

2. Theocracy; Calvin believed that (unlike Luther) the church should be active in political affairs. And it should be its moral code and guiding principle. Geneva, under the guidance of Calvin, was quite complex and close to a theocracy.

1539

The British Parliament approves the Statute of the Six Articles:

1. The Seven Sacraments are upheld

2. Catholic theology is maintained against Lutheranism and Calvinist theology.

3. The authority of the monarch replaces the authority of the Pope.

(While Henry is in power)

1540s

Calvinism Spreads. Scotland emerges with Presbyterians and France with Huguenots. Wealthy elites enjoy the Calvinist idea of wealth, and the Catholic Counter reformation starts.

1541

1. Calvin creates a model theocracy in Geneva.

2. The Scottish Calvinists (Presbyterians) establish a national church.

3. Hugenots make gains, but are suppressed by the majority of Catholics.

4. The English Calvinists (Puritans and Pilgrims) failed in their revolt in 1600, but they established a colony in New England.

1542 

The Jesuits are given control of the Spanish and Italian Inquisition. 

1. They kill perhaps tens of thousands on accusations of heresy. 

2. Index librorum prohibitorum is established. (The Index of the forbidden books by the Catholic Church) 

1545-1563

1. Calvin Begins preaching in Geneva

2. The Council of Trent in response to Protestant Reformation is held.

a. Salvation is by good works, AND faith.

b. Seven Sacraments + Transubstantiation is affirmed.

c. The traditions, bible, and church, are all valid sources for Christianity. The Vulgate (St. Jerome’s bible in Latin) is the only valid bible.

d. Monasticism, Celibacy, and Purgatory are affirmed.

e. Abuses were stopped, indulgences were confirmed but limited.

1555

The peace of Augsburg, allowed German Princes to choose the Religion of their subject lands. Either Catholicism, or Lutheranism (NO CALVANISM.)

Results of the Protestant Reformation:

1. Northern Europe adopts Protestantism

2. Unity of Christendom is Shattered

3. Religious wars break out for over a century

4. Protestantism encourages Individualism, Democracy, Science, and Capitalism.

5. Lutheraism helps Nationalism by making the Church Subordinate to the State.

The War of Three Henrys (1587-1589)

The War of the Three Henrys was partially a religious war and partially a dynastic war. The weak king, Henry III of France, was counseled to root out the Protestant Huguenot nobility by Henry of Guise.

1. Huguenots in France gained power and were about 10% of the nobility.

2. When Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) married Margaret of Valois, the king's sister, a massacre of Huguenot friends of Henry of Navarre by Roman Catholics known as the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre erupted, initiated by this war.

3. Henry the Fourth won the war and then converted to Catholicism.

4. In 1598, he issued the Edict of Nantes. This allowed Huguenots religious freedom in France.

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

The Thirty Years’ War was the first continent-wide war in modern history and was fought mostly in Germany. It involved the Major European Powers. It was the culminating war of the Religious wars of the 16th century between Catholics and Protestants.

Goals:

France wanted limit the power of the Habsburgs

German Princes wanted autonomy from the HRE

Sweden and Denmark wanted the Baltic Region. And also to support their Lutheran allies.

Phase 1 of the Thirty Years War: 

The Bohemian Phase (1618-1625): 

1. The Czecks (also known as the Bohemians) were largely Calvinist. After the death of the previous Roman Emperor, Matthias, a Catholic Emperor, Fredrick II, was put in charge. When Fredrick II sent his representatives to Bohemia to make its administration Catholic, a couple of Protestants threw them out the window. 

1620:

“Battle of White Mountain,” Where Fredrick II defeated the Bohemian Protestants. He also gave away protestant lands to Catholics Nobles who desired them. He also allowed the Spanish to gain more power. 

Phase 2 of the Thirty Years War: 

The Danish Phase (1625-1630) saw the Prince of Denmark, Christian IV, entered the war to strengthen the weakened Lutheran Princes, and to conquer German Lands. Fredrick II of Germany made an army of Missionaries who pillaged and attacked Germany, defeating the Danes in 1626. 

Phase 3 of the War:

Cardinal Richelieu was concerned with the gains made by Fredrick II in Germany. France (despite being Catholic) sided with the Protestants prioritizing economic interests over religious interests. So Richelieu incentivized the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus to enter the war. Gustavus was killed in the war however. And some German states made a separate peace deal with the Emperor. Though the Swedes Lost, Richelieu was determined to stop the Habsburgs.

Phase 4 of the Thirty Years War:

France, the Netherlands, and the southeastern part of France, and to an extant Italy, joined the war in 1635 to help Sweden. After a series of Victories and reversals on both sides, the French won over the Spanish. And in 1644 peace talks at Westphalia Germany began.

End of Thirty Years war (1648)

The Peace of Augsburg was reinstated, but Calvinism was added as an option to religious freedom. Switzerland and the Netherlands both gained independence. The HRE was divided amongst France, Sweden, and Future Prussia. And the concept of rulers representing ethnic groups was born. 

Effects of Thirty Years War:

German States: Devastated, massive population loss, famine, and death.

Religious wars: Religious wars ended, marking a turning point in the reformation era.

Habsburgs: Weakened, Austrian Monarchy lost most if its influence over Germany.

Catholicsm: The counter reformation was slowed, and the pope lost prestige and authority.,

Anabaptists: Vanished off the face of Europe.

Westphalian Sovereignty: The idea that diplomacy focuses on the nations as representatives of an ethnic group that could determine the codes and behaviors for their citizens. This theory prevailed.