The Great War and Post-WWI Germany

Flashcards covering key terms and concepts related to the causes and events of World War I, the impact of the war, the post-war peace settlement, and the resulting economic, geographic, political, and social conditions in Germany during the 1920s.

What is militarism and how did it contribute to pre-WWI tensions?

The belief in building up strong armed forces to prepare for war. It glorified military power and emphasized the importance of maintaining a large, well-equipped army. European nations were heavily investing in and expanding their military capabilities, leading to an arms race, particularly between Germany and Great Britain.

Define nationalism and explain its impact before WWI.

The intense national pride and the desire for ethnic groups to have their own nations were significant factors. Nationalism fuelled desires for independence and self-determination, particularly in the Balkans, where tensions were already high due to the decline of the Ottoman Empire. It also fueled intense competition and rivalry among European nations, as each sought to assert its dominance and protect its national interests, often leading to aggressive foreign policies.

Which nations were considered the Great Powers of Europe before WWI?

Before WWI, the prominent industrial and military powers of Europe, known as the Great Powers, included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France. Their competing interests and ambitions led to fierce rivalries across the continent.

What was Alsace-Lorraine and why was it a source of dispute before WWI?

Alsace-Lorraine was a territory on the border of France and Germany that France lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. The loss of this rich industrial region remained a deeply felt grievance and a key territorial dispute, fueling French resentment towards Germany and contributing to pre-war tensions.

Why were the Balkans known as the 'powder keg' of Europe?

The Balkans, a region in southeast Europe, was known as the 'powder keg of Europe' due to its long history of intense nationalism and ethnic conflicts. Numerous ethnic groups asserted their independence from Ottoman or Austro-Hungarian rule, leading to constant political instability and making the region highly susceptible to larger conflicts before and during WWI.

How did imperialism contribute to the outbreak of WWI?

Imperialism, the policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, economic control, or military force, fueled competition among European nations for colonies in Africa and Asia. This scramble for resources and global prestige deepened rivalries, increased mistrust, and led to conflicts over territorial claims, ultimately helping to set the stage for WWI.

Who was Otto von Bismarck and what was his primary goal in European politics?

Otto von Bismarck, Prussia’s 'blood-and-iron' chancellor, was the architect of German unification through a series of wars in the late 19th century. After unification, his primary goal in European politics was to maintain peace through a complex system of alliances designed to isolate France, preventing it from seeking revenge for the Franco-Prussian War.

What was the Dual Alliance and which countries were part of it?

The Dual Alliance was a military alliance formed by Otto von Bismarck in 1879 between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Its purpose was to counter potential threats from Russia and France, securing Germany's eastern and southern borders.

Which countries formed the Triple Alliance in 1882?

The Triple Alliance was formed in 1882 when Italy joined the existing Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. This agreement created a powerful Central European bloc, further solidifying the alliance system that characterized pre-WWI diplomacy.

Who was Kaiser Wilhelm II and what were his key actions that contributed to shifting alliances?

Kaiser Wilhelm II was the ambitious German emperor who took the throne in 1888 and famously forced Otto von Bismarck to resign in 1890. Eager to assert his personal authority and showcase Germany's burgeoning might on the world stage, he embarked on an aggressive policy of naval expansion and allowed the treaty with Russia to lapse, significantly disrupting existing alliances and contributing to increased international friction.

What was the 'two-front war' situation Germany feared by 1894?

By 1894, Germany greatly feared a 'two-front war,' which meant having to fight simultaneously on both its eastern and western borders. This concern became a reality when Russia and France formed an alliance, posing a strategic nightmare for German military planners.

Which countries formed the Triple Entente in 1907?

The Triple Entente was an alliance formed in 1907 by Great Britain, France, and Russia. This agreement was not a military alliance in the same way as the Triple Alliance, but a 'friendly understanding' that ensured Britain would not fight against France and Russia in a future conflict, thus balancing power in Europe and encircling Germany.

Why was the Balkan Peninsula referred to as the 'powder keg' of Europe?

The Balkan Peninsula earned the nickname 'powder keg of Europe' due to its explosive combination of intense nationalism among diverse ethnic groups (such as Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and others) and the declining influence of the Ottoman Empire, which led to numerous uprisings and ethnic clashes, making the region highly volatile and prone to igniting a wider conflict.

What were Bosnia and Herzegovina, and why did Austria's annexation of them in 1908 cause tension?

Bosnia and Herzegovina were two Balkan areas with significant Slavic populations that were under Austro-Hungarian administration following the Congress of Berlin in 1878. When Austria unilaterally annexed them in 1908, it caused immense outrage and increased tensions, particularly from Serbia, which had its own ambitions to expand into these Slavic territories and saw Austria's move as a direct threat.

Who was Archduke Franz Ferdinand and what was the significance of his assassination?

Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip was the immediate trigger for World War I. This act set off a chain reaction of ultimatums and declarations of war due to the complex web of alliances in Europe.

What is Sarajevo's historical significance related to WWI?

Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia (then an Austro-Hungarian territory), holds immense historical significance as the location where Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were assassinated on June 28, 1914. This pivotal event ignited the series of diplomatic maneuvers and military mobilizations that plunged Europe into World War I.

Who was Gavrilo Princip?

Gavrilo Princip was a 19-year-old Serbian nationalist and a member of the secret society known as the Black Hand. He famously assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, an act that directly precipitated the outbreak of World War I.

What was the Black Hand?

The Black Hand was a secret Serbian nationalist society (also known as 'Union or Death') committed to ridding Bosnia of Austrian rule and uniting all Slavs into a single Southern Slav nation. Gavrilo Princip, the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was a member of this organization.

What is an ultimatum, and when was one issued during the lead-up to WWI?

An ultimatum is a final demand or statement of terms, the rejection of which will result in retaliation or the breakdown of relations. In the lead-up to WWI, Austria-Hungary presented a harsh ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914, demanding severe concessions following the Archduke's assassination, which Serbia largely rejected and led to Austria's declaration of war.

What is mobilization and what role did Russia's mobilization play in escalating WWI?

Mobilization is the process of organizing and moving troops and resources in preparation for war. Russia's decision to fully mobilize its vast army after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia was seen by Germany as a direct act of aggression against its ally. This move triggered Germany's own mobilization and declaration of war on Russia, rapidly escalating the conflict.

Which countries constituted the Central Powers during WWI?

During World War I, the Central Powers originally consisted of the core alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were later joined by Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, forming a formidable bloc in Central and Eastern Europe.

Which countries formed the Allied Powers (Allies) during WWI?

The Allied Powers (or Allies) during World War I originally comprised Great Britain, France, and Russia (the Triple Entente). As the war progressed, they were joined by other nations including Japan, Italy (in 1915), and the United States (in 1917), forming a powerful global coalition.

What is a stalemate, and which front was it characteristic of during WWI?

A stalemate refers to a deadlock in which neither side is able to make significant progress or defeat the other, resulting in a prolonged and indecisive conflict. This condition was highly characteristic of much of the fighting on the Western Front during WWI, particularly due to the nature of trench warfare.

Describe the Western Front during WWI.

The Western Front during WWI was the name given to the primary theater of war in northern France. It evolved into a deadlocked region characterized by extensive trench warfare, where opposing armies dug vast systems of parallel ditches, leading to a long and bloody stalemate with immense casualties for minimal territorial gains.

What was the Schlieffen Plan?

The Schlieffen Plan was Germany's strategic blueprint for winning a potential two-front war, devised by General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen. It called for a rapid, decisive attack and defeat of France in the west (through neutral Belgium) before swiftly moving forces east to confront Russia, which was expected to mobilize more slowly. Its failure led to the trench warfare stalemate on the Western Front.

What was the significance of the First Battle of the Marne?

The First Battle of the Marne, fought in September 1914 on the Western Front northeast of Paris, was a crucial engagement. Allied forces, including French and British troops, regrouped and launched a counterattack against the advancing Germans. This battle halted the German advance, forced a German retreat, and effectively ruined the Schlieffen Plan's goal of a quick victory in the West, leading to the prolonged trench warfare.

Describe trench warfare during WWI.

Trench warfare during WWI was a brutal form of combat in which soldiers fought each other from parallel systems of fortified ditches. These trenches were protected by barbed wire, machine guns, and artillery, making direct assaults extremely costly. It led to enormous losses of human life for paltry gains of land, characterized by mud, disease, and constant danger.

What was 'No Man's Land' during WWI?

'No Man's Land' was the grim and perilous term given to the barren, desolate, and often shelled ground located between the opposing front-line trenches on the Western Front. It was a deadly area filled with barbed wire, craters, and unexploded ordnance, constantly swept by machine-gun fire, making any attempt to cross it extremely hazardous.

What does the term 'casualty' mean in the context of war?

In the context of war, a 'casualty' is an individual who is killed, injured, captured, or considered missing in action. The term quantifies the human cost of conflict, and WWI saw unprecedented numbers of casualties for all participating nations.

List some of the new weapons introduced during WWI.

World War I saw the introduction and widespread use of several devastating new weapons, including rapid-fire machine guns, poison gas (such as chlorine and mustard gas), armored tanks (which could cross 'No Man's Land'), larger and more accurate artillery, and military aircraft. These innovations significantly enhanced the scale of death and destruction on the battlefields.

What was the significance of the Battle of Verdun?

The Battle of Verdun, fought from February to December 1916, was one of the longest and most brutal battles of WWI. It was a massive German offensive against the French fortress city of Verdun, intended to 'bleed France white.' The battle resulted in over 300,000 casualties for each side, demonstrating the horrific attrition of trench warfare, but ultimately failed to break the French lines.

What was the purpose and outcome of the Battle of the Somme?

The Battle of the Somme, launched by the British army in July 1916, was intended to relieve pressure on the French forces at Verdun and achieve a breakthrough on the Western Front. Despite initial hopes, it devolved into another bloody stalemate, resulting in over half a million casualties for each side by November, with minimal strategic gains.

Describe the Eastern Front during WWI.

The Eastern Front during WWI stretched along the German and Russian border, extending generally from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Unlike the static Western Front, battles on the Eastern Front involved more mobile warfare between Russians and Serbs battling Germans and Austro-Hungarians. However, it was also characterized by immense slaughter, widespread famine, and ultimately ended in stalemate for Russia until its withdrawal from the war.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Tannenberg?

The Battle of Tannenberg, fought in August 1914 on the Eastern Front, was a decisive German victory. The Germans crushed the invading Russian army with superior tactics, killing over 30,000 Russian soldiers and capturing many more, demonstrating Russian military deficiencies early in the war.

What was the objective and result of the Gallipoli Campaign?

The Gallipoli Campaign was an Allied military strategy launched in February 1915 with the objective of securing the Dardanelles strait in the Ottoman Empire. This would open a crucial supply line to Russia and potentially knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war. However, the campaign resulted in another bloody stalemate and immense casualties for the Allied forces (primarily British, Australian, and New Zealand troops), ultimately leading to their withdrawal after nearly a year.

What are the Dardanelles and their significance during WWI?

The Dardanelles is a narrow, strategically important sea strait in the Ottoman Empire (present-day Turkey), connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara and, via the Bosporus, to the Black Sea. During WWI, it served as the gateway to Constantinople (Istanbul) and was the target of the abortive Gallipoli Campaign due to its critical role in controlling sea access to Russia.

What was Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare?

Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, announced in January 1917, declared that German U-boats would sink without warning any ship found in the waters around Britain and other enemy territories. This aggressive tactic aimed to cut off vital supplies to the Allies but risked drawing neutral nations, particularly the United States, into the war.

What was the Lusitania incident and its impact?

The Lusitania incident occurred in May 1915 when a German U-boat sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania off the coast of Ireland. The sinking killed 1,198 people, including 128 U.S. citizens, causing widespread outrage in America and contributing significantly to anti-German sentiment, drawing the U.S. closer to entering WWI.

What was the Zimmermann Note and how did it affect U.S. involvement in WWI?

The Zimmermann Note was a secret telegram intercepted in February 1917, sent by Germany’s foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German ambassador in Mexico. It proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico, offering German financial support for Mexico to 'reconquer' territory lost to the U.S. (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona) if the U.S. entered WWI. Its publication in the U.S. deeply angered the American public and was a key factor in pushing the United States closer to declaring war on Germany.

What defines 'total war'?

'Total war' is a conflict in which participating countries devote all their national resources—economic, industrial, and civilian—to the war effort. This involves government control over the economy, the implementation of rationing, and extensive use of propaganda to maintain morale and support, blurring the lines between military and civilian targets.

During WWI, what was rationing?

During WWI, rationing was a government-imposed system under which people could only buy limited quantities of certain essential goods that were also needed for the war effort, such as food, fuel, and raw materials. This measure aimed to conserve resources and ensure sufficient supplies for the military.

What is propaganda and how was it used in WWI?

Propaganda is one-sided information designed to persuade, influence public opinion, and sometimes mislead. During WWI, governments extensively used propaganda through posters, pamphlets, and newspapers to demonize the enemy, boost civilian morale, encourage enlistment, justify their actions, and maintain public support for the prolonged and costly war effort.

Who was Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and what was his impact on Russia's role in WWI?

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik (Communist) Party who seized power in Russia during the October Revolution of November 1917. Fulfilling his promise to end Russia's involvement in the costly war, Lenin immediately insisted on signing a separate peace treaty with the Central Powers, profoundly impacting the Eastern Front and allowing Germany to shift troops to the Western Front.

What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a harsh peace treaty signed in March 1918 between the new Bolshevik government of Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria). This treaty officially ended Russia's involvement in WWI, but it forced Russia to cede extensive territories and resources, allowing Germany to redirect its forces entirely to the Western Front.

What was the significance of the Second Battle of the Marne?

The Second Battle of the Marne, fought in July 1918, was a pivotal engagement on the Western Front. It represented the last major German offensive of WWI. However, aided by the arrival of fresh American troops and the effective use of tanks, the Allies launched a powerful counterattack that turned the German advance, marking the beginning of the Allies' final push and the eventual collapse of the Central Powers.

What is an armistice, and when was the WWI armistice signed?

An armistice is an agreement to stop fighting, a temporary cessation of hostilities. The armistice ending World War I was signed on November 11, 1918, at 11:00 AM, between representatives of the new German government and the French Commander Marshal Foch. This agreement effectively brought an end to the fighting on the Western Front and paved the way for peace negotiations.

Which alliance ultimately won World War I?

The Allied Powers, which included Great Britain, France, Russia (until 1918), Japan, Italy, and significantly, the United States, ultimately won World War I against the Central Powers.

What was the purpose of the Paris Peace Conference?

The Paris Peace Conference began on January 18, 1919, at the Palace of Versailles. Its primary purpose was to establish the terms of peace after World War I, negotiate treaties with the defeated Central Powers, and redefine the geopolitical landscape of Europe and beyond. Delegates representing 32 countries gathered, though major decisions were driven by the 'Big Four'.

Who were the 'Big Four' at the Paris Peace Conference?

The 'Big Four' were the major decision-makers at the Paris Peace Conference who wielded significant influence in shaping the post-WWI peace settlement. They included Woodrow Wilson (President of the United States), Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France), David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Great Britain), and Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy).

Who was Woodrow Wilson and what was his plan for peace after WWI?

Woodrow Wilson was the President of the United States during WWI. In January 1918, he passionately advocated for a humanitarian and just peace by proposing his 'Fourteen Points.' This plan aimed to address the root causes of war, promote self-determination, establish free trade, reduce armaments, and create a 'general association of nations' to maintain future peace.

What were President Wilson's Fourteen Points?

President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points were a series of peace proposals outlined in January 1918 aimed at achieving a just and lasting peace after WWI. Key proposals included an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, reduction of national militaries, fair adjustments of colonial claims, specific border changes leading to new nations (like Poland), and the creation of a 'general association of nations' (the League of Nations).

What is self-determination, as promoted by Woodrow Wilson?

Self-determination, as championed by Woodrow Wilson and his Fourteen Points, was the guiding idea that ethnic groups should have the right to form their own independent nations and decide for themselves under what government they wished to live. This principle aimed to address nationalistic tensions that contributed to WWI.

What was the League of Nations?

The League of Nations was an international association proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (as his fourteenth point) and formally created by the Treaty of Versailles. Its primary goal was to provide a forum for resolving international disputes and keeping peace among nations, aiming to prevent future global conflicts through collective security and diplomacy.

Who was Georges Clemenceau?

Georges Clemenceau was the Prime Minister of France during World War I and a prominent figure at the Paris Peace Conference. Often nicknamed 'Tiger' for his fierce and determined personality, Clemenceau was resolute in his desire to punish Germany severely for the war. Along with Britain, France aimed to strip Germany of its war-making capabilities and ensure its long-term security.

Who was David Lloyd George and what was his role at the Paris Peace Conference?

David Lloyd George was the Prime Minister of Great Britain and a key member of the 'Big Four' at the Paris Peace Conference. Representing British interests, he played a crucial role in negotiating the post-WWI peace settlement, seeking a balance between punishing Germany and ensuring Europe's economic stability.

Who was Vittorio Orlando and what was Italy's sentiment after the Paris Peace Conference?

Vittorio Orlando was the Prime Minister of Italy and one of the 'Big Four' at the Paris Peace Conference. Despite Italy joining the Allied Powers with expectations of significant territorial gains, it felt 'cheated and betrayed' after the peace settlement due to receiving less territory than desired, leading to widespread dissatisfaction within Italy.

Which major nations were notably excluded from participating in the Paris Peace Conference and the negotiation of the Treaty of Versailles?

Germany and Russia were notably excluded from the Paris Peace Conference. Germany, as the defeated power, was not invited to negotiate but was presented with the treaty terms. Russia was in the grip of a devastating civil war following the Bolshevik Revolution, making its participation impractical and undesirable for the other Allied powers.

What was the Treaty of Versailles?

The Treaty of Versailles was the primary peace treaty signed on June 28, 1919, between Germany and the victorious Allied powers, officially ending World War I. It was a harsh document that imposed severe penalties on Germany, including massive reparations, territorial losses, and significant military restrictions, ultimately laying groundwork for future conflicts.

What was Article 231, also known as the War Guilt Clause?

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, infamously known as the War Guilt Clause, was arguably its harshest provision. It explicitly placed sole responsibility for starting World War I on Germany's shoulders, a deeply resented accusation that fueled German resentment and nationalist sentiment in the years that followed.

What are reparations, specifically in the context of WWI?

Reparations are payments made by a defeated nation to compensate for damage, injury, or loss incurred during a war. After WWI, Germany was forced by the Treaty of Versailles to pay enormous reparations to the Allies, particularly France and Belgium, contributing to its severe post-war economic struggles. These payments were intended to cover war damages and were a significant burden on Germany's economy. As a result of the war guilt clause, Germany was forced to pay the Allies $33 billion in reparations over 30 years, adversely affecting its recovery and contributing to political instability in the 1920s and 1930s.

What were mandates after WWI?

After WWI, mandates were territories in Africa and the Pacific (formerly German colonies) and Southwest Asia (formerly Ottoman lands). Instead of becoming independent, these were to be administered by the League of Nations under the tutelage of Allied powers (like Britain and France) until they were judged ready for independence, a system often criticized as thinly veiled colonialism.

List some of the new nations that emerged after WWI.

Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German, and Russian empires after WWI, several new nations emerged or gained significant territory. These included Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia (from the Austro-Hungarian Empire); Turkey (from the Ottoman Empire); and Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (from former Russian territories). Poland also regained its independence and gained territory from Russia.

Why did the United States reject the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations?

The United States ultimately rejected the Treaty of Versailles and, crucially, did not join the League of Nations, despite President Woodrow Wilson's strong advocacy. The U.S. Senate, fearing that League membership would entangle the nation in future European conflicts and compromise its sovereignty, believed that staying out of European affairs through a policy of isolationism was the best hope for maintaining peace and protecting American interests.

What was hyperinflation in Germany after WWI?

Hyperinflation in Germany after WWI was an extreme and uncontrolled rise in prices, especially pronounced in 1922-1923. Triggered largely by the government's unrestrained printing of money to pay off war debts and reparations, the value of the German mark plummeted drastically, leading to economic collapse, widespread poverty, and profound unrest. The value of the mark collapsed from 4.2 Marks equating to one US Dollar in 1918 to requiring 4,200,000,000,000 Marks (4.2 trillion marks) for one US Dollar by November 16, 1923

What was the Weimar Republic?

The Weimar Republic was the name given to the German government established after the end of World War I. It was the democratic German republic established in 1919 after Kaiser Wilhelm II fled in 1918. Named after the city Weimar where its constitution was drafted, it faced significant challenges including political instability, severe economic crises (like hyperinflation), and widespread public discontent, yet it also fostered a period of creative freedom and cultural innovation throughout the 1920s.

What was the Rhineland's status after WWI under the Treaty of Versailles?

Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Rhineland, a strategically vital region along Germany's western borders adjacent to France and Belgium, was demilitarized. German forces were forbidden from entering it, and it was occupied by Allied forces for several years. This measure was intended to provide a buffer zone and enhance French security against future German aggression.

What was the Reichstag during the Weimar Republic?

During the Weimar Republic, the Reichstag was Germany's central, lower house parliament. It was the main legislative body, responsible for making laws, approving the budget, and overseeing the government, and was elected by universal suffrage using a proportional representation system. In a proportional representation election with 100 total seats, if a party gets 40% of the vote, they receive 40 of the seats. This is different from a "winner-take-all" system, where a party with 40% of the vote might get zero seats if another party wins a majority in every district. It held significant power, although its effectiveness was often undermined by political instability and coalition governments.

What fundamental right was declared in Article 109 of the Weimar Constitution?

Article 109 of the Weimar Constitution declared a foundational right: that all Germans were equal before the law, and that men and women had the same fundamental civil rights and duties. This was a significant step towards gender equality in post-WWI Germany.

What was the immediate human and psychological legacy of World War I?

The war resulted in the death of about 8.5 million soldiers and wounded 21 million others, tragically wiping out "an entire generation of Europeans". This enormous suffering left a "deep mark on Western society," instilling a profound sense of disillusionment and reflecting insecurity and despair in the art and literature of the time.

What was the estimated economic cost and physical destruction left by the Great War?

The conflict had a devastating economic impact, draining the treasuries of European countries at a cost of an estimated $338 billion. Physically, the war destroyed acres of farmland, as well as homes, villages, and towns

Which nations felt "cheated and betrayed" by the peace settlement, and why?

Germany was left with a legacy of "bitterness and hatred" due to the war-guilt clause and reparations. Japan and Italy both felt cheated and betrayed because they had entered the war to gain territory but ultimately gained less than they wanted. Africans and Asians in the mandated territories were angry because European powers disregarded their desire for independence, seeing the mandate system as colonialism in disguise.

What two contradictory moods defined the Weimar Republic's social and political landscape?

The first mood was excitement and creativity, marked by newly permitted freedom of expression in art, music, dance, and architecture. Women took on significant new roles, making up roughly one-third of the workforce, exercising the right to vote, and holding political office. The second mood was anxiety and fear, driven by unease over rapid social changes, fear of communism, and economic crises. This anxiety manifested in intense violent clashes in the streets between various political parties, including the growing National Socialist Party, which spread "songs of hatred".