The Great War and Post-WWI Germany
The Great War: Causes, Conflict, and Aftermath
Setting the Stage for War
Efforts for Peace and Rising Tensions
Long Period of Peace: At the turn of the 20th century, Europe had experienced nearly 30 years of relative peace.
Peace Movements: Hundreds of peace organizations were active, and peace congresses convened regularly between 1843 and 1907, leading some Europeans to believe that war was obsolete.
Underlying Forces: Despite visible peace, several gradual developments propelled the continent towards war.
The Rise of Nationalism
Definition: Nationalism is a deep devotion to one’s nation.
Dual Nature: It can be a unifying force within a country but also causes intense competition among nations, each seeking supremacy.
European Rivalry: A fierce rivalry developed among Europe’s Great Powers by the turn of the 20th century.
Great Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France.
Sources of Rivalry:
Competition for materials and markets.
Territorial disputes:
France resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870).
Austria-Hungary and Russia both sought to dominate the Balkan region in southeast Europe.
The Balkans experienced intense nationalism from ethnic groups like Serbs, Bulgarians, and Romanians, leading to demands for independence.
Imperialism and Militarism
Imperialism:
European nations fiercely competed for colonies in Africa and Asia (referencing Chapter 27).
The quest for colonies pushed nations to the brink of war, deepening rivalry and mistrust.
Militarism:
Arms Race: The early 20th century saw a dangerous European arms race.
Belief in Military Power: Nations believed a powerful military was essential for national greatness.
Standing Armies: By 1914, all Great Powers except Britain had large standing armies.
Mobilization: Military experts emphasized the importance of rapid mobilization (organizing and moving troops) in case of war. Generals developed highly detailed mobilization plans.
Definition: Militarism is the policy of glorifying military power and keeping a large army prepared for war.
Consequences: Fostered patriotism but also instilled fear among some, as noted by peace activist Frédéric Passy in 1895:
"The entire able-bodied population are preparing to massacre one another; though no one, it is true, wants to attack, and everybody protests his love of peace and determination to maintain it, yet the whole world feels that it only requires some unforeseen incident, some unpreventable accident, for the spark to fall in a flash . . . and blow all Europe sky-high."
Tangled Alliances
Purpose: Alliance systems were initially designed to keep peace among the Great Powers but ultimately helped propel Europe into war.
Bismarck's Pacts (pre-1890):
Otto von Bismarck: Prussia’s chancellor, unified Germany through war between 1864 and 1871.
"Satisfied Power": After 1871, Germany was declared a "satisfied power," and Bismarck focused on maintaining European peace.
Goal: Isolate France: Bismarck viewed France as the biggest threat due to its desire for revenge for the Franco-Prussian War. He aimed to keep France without allies.
Dual Alliance (1879): Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Triple Alliance (1882): Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Treaty with Russia (1881): Bismarck also secured an alliance with Russia, removing another potential ally from France.
Shifting Alliances Under Kaiser Wilhelm II (1890 onwards):
Bismarck's Resignation: In 1890, Kaiser Wilhelm II (ruler since 1888) forced Bismarck to resign, as he did not wish to share power.
Wilhelm II's Ambition: Proud and stubborn, Wilhelm II was eager to display Germany’s might, with the army as his greatest pride.
Lapse of Russian Treaty: Wilhelm allowed Germany’s treaty with Russia to lapse in 1890.
Franco-Russian Alliance (1892, 1894): Russia responded by forming a defensive military alliance with France, a situation Bismarck had feared as it meant a potential two-front war for Germany.
Naval Buildup: Wilhelm initiated a massive shipbuilding program to make the German navy equal to Britain’s powerful fleet.
British Response: Alarmed, Great Britain formed an entente (alliance) with France.
Triple Entente (1907): Britain formed another entente with France and Russia. While not binding Britain to fight, it ensured Britain would not fight against them.
Europe's Two Rival Camps (by 1907):
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.
Triple Entente: Great Britain, France, Russia.
Risk: A dispute between any two of these powers could escalate and draw all nations into war.
Crisis in the Balkans: The "Powder Keg" of Europe
History: A mountainous peninsula in southeastern Europe, home to diverse ethnic groups, with a long history of nationalist uprisings and ethnic clashes.
Ottoman Decline: By the early 1900s, the Ottoman Empire, which included the Balkan region, was rapidly declining.
New Nations: Some Balkan groups achieved independence from the Ottoman Turks, forming new nations such as Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.
Expansionist Nationalism: Nationalism remained a powerful force, with each new nation seeking to expand its borders.
Serbian Ambitions: Serbia, with a large Slavic population, aimed to absorb all Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula.
Russian Support: Russia, also a predominantly Slavic nation, supported Serbian nationalism.
Austro-Hungarian Opposition: Austria-Hungary, Serbia’s powerful northern neighbor, opposed Serbian expansion due to fears it would incite rebellion among its own Slavic population.
Bosnia and Herzegovina Annexation (1908): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, two Balkan areas with large Slavic populations. This enraged Serbian leaders, who had sought to rule these provinces.
Rising Tensions: Tensions between Serbia and Austria steadily increased, with Serbia vowing to reclaim Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary committing to crush any Serbian attempts to undermine its authority.
A Shot Rings Throughout Europe
Setting: The atmosphere was poisoned by mutual dislike and mistrust.
Assassination in Sarajevo (June 28, 1914):
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie paid a state visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.
They were shot at point-blank range by Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian, who was a member of the Black Hand, a secret society dedicated to removing Austrian rule from Bosnia.
Austria's Response and Ultimatum (July 23):
Austria decided to use the assassination as an excuse to punish Serbia.
It presented Serbia with an ultimatum: a list of demands that, if not met, would lead to severe consequences.
Serbia's Concession and Austria's Declaration of War (July 28):
Serbia agreed to most of Austria’s demands and offered to settle others through an international conference.
Austria, however, rejected negotiations and declared war on Serbia.
Russian Mobilization: Immediately, Russia, an ally of Serbia and a largely Slavic nation, ordered the mobilization of its troops toward the Austrian border.
Escalation: European leaders, including the British foreign minister, the Italian government, and even Kaiser Wilhelm, urged Austria and Russia to negotiate, but it was too late. The "machinery of war" had been set in motion.
The Great War Begins
Nations Take Sides
Chain Reaction: Austria’s declaration of war against Serbia initiated a chain reaction within the alliance system, leading countries to honor their pledges.
German Response: Russia’s mobilization was seen by Germany as a declaration of war.
August 1, Germany declared war on Russia.
Two days later, Germany declared war on France, Russia’s ally.
British Entry: Great Britain subsequently declared war on Germany.
The Two Sides:
Central Powers: Germany and Austria-Hungary. Later joined by Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire (seeking to regain lost territories).
Allied Powers (Allies): Great Britain, France, and Russia. Later joined by Japan (within weeks) and Italy.
Italy, originally a member of the Triple Alliance, switched sides, accusing Germany and Austria-Hungary of starting the war unjustly.
Expectations: Millions of soldiers marched confidently to battle in the summer of 1914, expecting a short war. Only a few, like Britain's foreign minister Sir Edward Grey, foresaw the horror, remarking, "The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime."
A Bloody Stalemate: The Western Front
Stalemate: By the fall of 1914, the war devolved into a long and bloody deadlock along the battlefields of France, known as the Western Front.
The Schlieffen Plan:
Origin: Germany’s battle strategy, designed by General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, to avoid a two-front war.
Objective: Attack and quickly defeat France in the west, then rush east to fight Russia.
Rationale: The Germans believed Russia’s underdeveloped railroad system would delay its mobilization.
Execution and Early Success: German forces swept into France, reaching the outskirts of Paris by early September, appearing close to a major victory.
First Battle of the Marne (September 5-9):
Allies regrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris in the Marne River valley.
More than 600 Parisian taxicabs rushed reinforcements to the front.
After four days, German generals ordered a retreat.
Significance: This was arguably the most important event of the war. It ruined the Schlieffen Plan, making a quick victory in the west impossible and forcing Germany to fight a prolonged war on two fronts.
War in the Trenches
Trench Warfare: By early 1915, both sides on the Western Front had dug miles of parallel trenches, leading to trench warfare, where armies fought from these positions.
Characteristics: Huge losses of life were traded for pitifully small territorial gains.
Life in the Trenches:
Pure misery: soldiers slept, washed, and ate in mud. Swarmed with rats, lacked fresh food, and sleep was nearly impossible.
"No Man's Land": The desolate, bombed-out space between opposing trenches.
Attacks: Soldiers went "over the top" of their trenches into no man’s land, directly into murderous machine-gun fire.
Constant Danger: Artillery fire brought death into the trenches themselves, described by one French soldier as "living hell."
Scope: The Western Front became a "terrain of death," stretching almost 500 miles from the North Sea to the Swiss border.
New Weapons, Old Strategy: Military strategists struggled. The new tools of war (machine guns, poison gas, armored tanks, larger artillery) killed more effectively but did not yield the fast-moving war expected.
Peak Slaughter (1916):
Battle of Verdun (February): Germans launched a massive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost over 300,000 men.
Battle of the Somme (July): The British attacked Germans northwest of Verdun to relieve pressure. Over 20,000 British soldiers died on the first day alone. By November, each side had suffered over 500,000 casualties.
Minimal Gains: Germans advanced about 4 miles near Verdun; British gained about 5 miles in the Somme valley.
The Battle on the Eastern Front
Location: A stretch of battlefield along the German and Russian border.
Combatants: Russians and Serbs battled Germans and Austro-Hungarians.
Nature of Conflict: More mobile than the Western Front, but still characterized by slaughter and stalemate.
Early Fighting:
Russian forces initially attacked Austria and Germany.
Battle of Tannenberg (late August): Germans counterattacked, crushing the invading Russian army and forcing a retreat. Over 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.
Russians had some success against Austrians, defeating them twice in September 1914 before the Austrian army pushed them out by December.
Russia Struggles (by 1916):
Lack of Industrialization: Russia's war effort neared collapse due to its unindustrialized state, leading to severe shortages of food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots, and blankets.
Supply Limitations: Allied supply shipments were severely limited by German control of the Baltic Sea and their submarine campaigns in the North Sea. The Ottomans also controlled the straits connecting the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.
Human Asset: Russia’s only advantage was its immense population, allowing it to continually rebuild its ranks despite staggering battlefield losses.
Strategic Importance: Russia’s sustained, albeit costly, involvement tied up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east, preventing Germany from concentrating its full force on the Western Front.
The Frozen Front: Soldiers on the Eastern Front faced deadly winters, compounding their misery due to lack of adequate food and clothing.
New Weapons of War
Poison Gas: Introduced by Germans, used by both sides. Caused blindness, blisters, or death by choking. Soldiers wore masks for protection.
Machine Gun: Significantly improved by WWI, firing automatically. Could decimate waves of attackers, making advances extremely difficult.
Tank: An armored combat vehicle moving on chain tracks, capable of crossing various terrains. Introduced by the British in 1916 at the Battle of the Somme.
Submarine (U-boat): Introduced by Germans in 1914. Its primary weapon against ships was the torpedo, an underwater missile.
War Affects the World
Global Expansion of the Conflict
Beyond Europe: World War I was not confined to Europe; fighting spread to Africa, Southwest Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Allies Seeking Support: As the war became a prolonged stalemate, the main combatants sought new allies and opened new war fronts globally.
Colonial Involvement: Australia and Japan joined the Allies, while India provided troops for their British rulers. The Ottoman Turks and Bulgaria allied with the Central Powers.
The Gallipoli Campaign
Allied Strategy: A promising Allied strategy was to attack the Dardanelles, a narrow sea strait in the Ottoman Empire that served as the gateway to its capital, Constantinople.
Objectives: Allies believed securing the Dardanelles would allow them to take Constantinople, defeat the Turks, and establish a crucial supply line to Russia.
Campaign Launch (February 1915): British, Australian, New Zealand, and French troops repeatedly assaulted the Gallipoli Peninsula.
Stalemate and Retreat: Turkish troops, commanded by German officers, vigorously defended. By May, the campaign became another bloody stalemate, with both sides digging trenches. In December, the Allies withdrew, having suffered approximately 250,000 casualties.
Battles in Africa and Asia
German Colonial Losses:
Japan quickly overran German outposts in China and captured Germany’s Pacific island colonies.
English and French troops attacked Germany’s four African possessions, seizing control of three.
Colonial Recruitment: The British and French recruited subjects from their colonies in India, South Africa, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria, and Indochina to serve as fighting troops and laborers.
Motivations: Some subjects resisted involvement in European conflicts, while others, like Indian political leader Mohandas Gandhi, volunteered in hopes that service would lead to independence for their homelands.
America Joins the Fight
Shift to Naval Warfare (1917): The focus of the war shifted to the high seas as Germany intensified submarine warfare.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (January 1917):
Germany announced its submarines would sink any ship without warning in British waters.
Lusitania Incident (May 7, 1915): A German U-boat sank the British passenger ship Lusitania, killing 1,198 people, including 128 U.S. citizens. Germany claimed (truthfully) the ship carried ammunition. The American public was outraged, leading President Woodrow Wilson to issue a strong protest. Germany temporarily agreed to stop attacking neutral and passenger ships after two more incidents.
Resumption: Desperate for an advantage, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, gambling that it could starve Britain into defeat before the U.S. could mobilize. German U-boats sank three American ships.
The Zimmermann Note (February 1917):
British intelligence intercepted a telegram from German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann to Mexico.
Proposal: It proposed that Germany would help Mexico "reconquer" land lost to the United States if Mexico allied itself with Germany against the U.S.
Impact: This note was the final trigger for the U.S.
U.S. Entry: A large part of the American population already favored the Allies due to shared ancestry, language, democratic institutions, legal systems with England, and stronger economic ties. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany, and the U.S. entered on the Allied side.
War Affects the Home Front
Total War: World War I became a total war, meaning countries devoted all their resources to the war effort.
Government Control: Governments took control of economies, dictating factory production and quantities. Factories were converted for munitions.
Labor: Nearly all able-bodied civilians were put to work, virtually eliminating unemployment in many European countries.
Rationing: Governments implemented rationing systems to ensure items vital for the war effort (from butter to shoe leather) were prioritized, allowing civilians to buy only small amounts.
Censorship and Propaganda: Antiwar activity was suppressed, and news about the war was censored to prevent public dissent. Governments used propaganda (one-sided information) to maintain morale and support for the war.
Women and the War:
New Roles: Thousands of women replaced men in factories, offices, and shops, building tanks, munitions, plowing fields, paving streets, and running hospitals. They also supplied troops with essentials.
Changing Perceptions: While most women left the workforce after the war, their contributions significantly altered public perceptions of women’s capabilities.
Frontline Service: Women also served as nurses near the front lines, witnessing the horrors of war firsthand, as described by American nurse Shirley Millard.
The Allies Win the War
U.S. Impact: The entry of the United States began to tip the balance in favor of the Allies.
Russia Withdraws:
Czar's Abdication (March 1917): Civil unrest in Russia, largely due to war-related food and fuel shortages, forced Czar Nicholas to step down. A provisional government was established.
War-Weariness: By 1917, approximately 5.5 million Russian soldiers had been wounded, killed, or taken prisoner, leading the war-weary army to refuse further fighting.
Bolshevik Revolution (November 1917): Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin seized power and insisted on Russia’s withdrawal from the war.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918): Russia and Germany signed this treaty, ending the war between them.
The Central Powers Collapse:
German Final Offensive (March 1918): Russia's withdrawal allowed Germany to transfer nearly all its forces to the Western Front, launching a final massive attack that reached the Marne River by late May, less than 40 miles from Paris.
Allied Counterattack: German forces were exhausted. The Allies, bolstered by nearly 140,000 fresh U.S. troops, launched a counterattack.
Second Battle of the Marne (July 1918): Allied forces, including 350 tanks, smashed through German lines. With the arrival of 2 million more American troops, the Allies steadily advanced.
Central Powers Crumble: Bulgaria and the Ottoman Turks surrendered first. Revolution swept through Austria-Hungary in October. In Germany, soldiers mutinied, and the public turned against Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Kaiser's Abdication (November 9, 1918): Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down, and Germany declared itself a republic.
Armistice (November 11, 1918): Representatives of the new German government signed an armistice (agreement to stop fighting) with French Commander Marshal Foch, bringing World War I to an end.
The Legacy of the War
A New Kind of War: WWI utilized new technologies and encompassed a grand, global scale, leaving unprecedented death and destruction.
Human Cost:
Approximately 8.5 million soldiers died.
21 million were wounded.
Countless civilians perished from starvation, disease, and slaughter, effectively wiping out an entire generation of Europeans.
World War I Statistics (Battlefield Deaths of Major Combatants):
Allied Powers mobilized: 42 million
Central Powers mobilized: 23 million
Germany: 1.8 million
Russia: 1.7 million
France: 1.3 million
Austria-Hungary: 1.2 million
British Empire (incl. colonies): 908,000
Italy: 650,000
Ottoman Empire: 325,000
USA: 116,000
(Note: Germany, Russia, France, and Austria-Hungary accounted for about 75 percent of all battlefield deaths.)
Economic Impact:
Drained European treasuries; total cost estimated at 338 billion.
Destroyed acres of farmland, homes, villages, and towns.
Social Impact:
Profound suffering led to disillusionment, insecurity, and despair, reflected in the art and literature of the era.
The Influenza Epidemic (1918): A deadly strain of influenza (Spanish Flu) emerged, spreading globally and killing over 20 million people worldwide, proving more destructive than the war itself. India alone saw at least 12 million deaths.
Peace Agreement Legacy: The subsequent peace treaties, forged amidst debate and compromise, ultimately bred anger and resentment, contributing to the outbreak of World War II.
A Flawed Peace: The Treaty of Versailles and its Aftermath
The Paris Peace Conference
Beginning: The conference to establish peace terms began on January 18, 1919, at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris.
Attendees: Delegates from 32 countries participated in a year of vigorous and often bitter debate.
The Big Four: Major decisions were hammered out by the heads of state of the dominant Allied powers:
Woodrow Wilson (United States)
Georges Clemenceau (France)
David Lloyd George (Great Britain)
Vittorio Orlando (Italy)
Exclusions: Russia (amidst civil war) and Germany and its allies were not represented.
Wilson's Plan for Peace: The Fourteen Points
Proposals: In January 1918, President Wilson outlined a plan for a just and lasting peace.
Key Principles:
First Four Points: Called for an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, and reduced national armies and navies.
Fifth Point: Advocated for the fair adjustment of colonial claims, with consideration for colonial peoples.
Sixth to Thirteenth Points: Addressed specific border changes and the creation of new nations.
Self-determination: The guiding idea behind these points was to allow people to decide for themselves the government under which they wished to live.
Fourteenth Point: Proposed a "general association of nations" to protect "great and small states alike," reflecting Wilson's hope for an international organization that could peacefully resolve global conflicts.
The Treaty of Versailles
Allied Aims: Britain and France primarily sought national security and to strip Germany of its war-making capabilities, diverging from Wilson's broader vision of peace.
Compromise and Signing: A compromise was eventually reached, and the treaty between Germany and the Allied powers was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after Franz Ferdinand’s assassination.
Major Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles:
League of Nations: Adopted Wilson's fourteenth point, creating an international association tasked with keeping peace among nations. Germany and Russia were initially excluded.
Punishment of Germany:
Territorial Losses: Germany lost substantial territory, including Alsace-Lorraine (returned to France) and all its overseas colonies, which became mandates administered by the League of Nations.
"War Guilt" Clause (Article 231): This clause placed sole responsibility for the war on Germany's shoulders, leading to deep resentment.
Reparations: Germany was forced to pay 33 billion in reparations to the Allies over 30 years.
Military Restrictions: Severe limitations were placed on Germany’s military operations, including army size limits, prohibition from importing or manufacturing weapons or war material, and forbidding submarines or an air force.
A Troubled Treaty: "A Peace Built on Quicksand"
Multiple Treaties: The Treaty of Versailles was one of five treaties negotiated by the Allies with individual defeated nations.
Creation of New Nations from Central Powers:
Austria-Hungary: Several new independent nations were created: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
Ottoman Empire: Lost almost all its former empire, retaining only modern-day Turkey. Its Southwest Asian lands were carved into mandates: Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan (under British control), and Syria and Lebanon (under French control).
Russia: Lost territory to Romania and Poland. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became independent nations.
Widespread Bitterness and Betrayal:
United States Rejection: The U.S. ultimately rejected the treaty, particularly the League of Nations, believing its best hope for peace lay in staying out of European affairs. It later negotiated a separate treaty with Germany.
German Resentment: The war-guilt clause, in particular, fostered a legacy of bitterness and hatred among the German people.
Anger in Mandated Territories: People in African and Asian mandated territories were furious that their desires for independence were disregarded, viewing the mandate system as a continuation of European colonialism.
Disappointment Among Allies: Japan and Italy, which joined the war to gain territory, felt cheated as they received less than desired.
Ineffective League of Nations: Lacking the support of the United States and other major powers, the League of Nations was unable to effectively address these complaints.
Pathway to Another War: The peace settlements generated anger and resentment, creating a "peace built on quicksand" that would contribute to another catastrophic war within two decades.
Germany: Economic Position After World War I
The Hyperinflation Crisis
Onset: Beginning in the fall of 1922, Germany experienced extreme inflation, or hyperinflation, where prices rose continuously and the value of its currency (the mark) dropped sharply. This was more severe than in other European countries.
Causes:
Wartime Financing: During the war, the German government printed excessive amounts of paper money to pay soldiers and buy supplies, avoiding tax increases to prevent public anger.
Post-War Currency Surplus: After the war, there was far more currency in circulation than available goods.
Reparations and Ruhr Occupation: When Germany defaulted on reparations payments, France occupied the Ruhr (a coal and iron-rich industrial region). German workers responded with a general strike, producing almost nothing. This scarcity of goods further increased prices.
Impact:
Devaluation: The value of the mark plummeted almost hourly.
Savings Obliterated: Germans with savings in banks, pensions, or disability checks became virtually bankrupt, as their money became worthless.
Wages vs. Prices: Wages, despite rising, could not keep pace with rapidly soaring prices. Artist George Grosz described how prices increased by millions of marks within minutes, forcing people to carry money in wagons or knapsacks.
Uncertainty: Professor Victor Klemperer noted in October 1923 that the U.S. dollar stood at 800 million marks and rising by 300 million daily, creating concern over basic necessities.
Resolution and Legacy:
Stabilization: The government managed to control the runaway inflation by 1924, but by then, prices had reached a billion times their pre-WWI levels.
Lasting Trauma: Despite five years of relative peace and prosperity that followed, the hyperinflation crisis left a profound psychological and economic trauma on Germans of all classes. It deepened conservative sections of the population's sense of a world turned "upside-down" by defeat, revolution, and economic collapse.
Value of German Currency, 1918–1923 (Marks per US Dollar):
1918: 4.2
1921: 75
1922: 400
January 1923: 7,000
July 1923: 160,000
August 1923: 1,000,000
November 1, 1923: 1,300,000,000
November 15, 1923: 1,300,000,000,000
November 16, 1923: 4,200,000,000,000
Germany's Altered Landscape: Geography After World War I
Reshaping of Germany: World War I (1914-1918) dramatically changed Germany's geographical position, transforming its map and its relationships with neighbors.
Territorial Losses (Treaty of Versailles, 1919):
Alsace-Lorraine: Ceded back to France, a region long contested between the two nations.
Saar Basin: Placed under League of Nations administration, with France controlling its coal mines to weaken Germany's industrial capacity.
Eupen-Malmedy: Ceded to Belgium.
Northern Schleswig: Returned to Denmark following a plebiscite.
Danzig (Gdańsk): Declared a free city under the supervision of the League of Nations.
Demilitarization and Occupation:
Rhineland: A strategically important region along Germany’s western borders was demilitarized and occupied by Allied forces for several years to ensure Germany complied with disarmament provisions.
Creation of New States: The treaty recognized the independence of several new nations, significantly altering Germany’s eastern borders.
Poland: Re-emerged as an independent state.
Czechoslovakia: Formed as a new nation.
These new countries incorporated territories that were previously part of the German Empire.
Economic Impact: The loss of valuable industrial territories and resources, combined with heavy reparations payments, inflicted severe economic hardship and instability on Germany. These conditions would later be exploited by extremist political movements.
Long-Term Significance: These geographical alterations played a pivotal role in shaping Germany's political and economic landscape during the turbulent interwar period, ultimately setting the stage for World War II.
Germany: Political Position After World War I (1920s)
Post-War Turmoil: The Treaty of Versailles' harsh penalties (blaming Germany for the war, imposing territorial losses, and hefty reparations) left Germany in turmoil, fostering deep resentment, humiliation, and injustice.
Birth of the Weimar Republic: Following the war, Germany became a republic and embarked on a tumultuous journey characterized by political instability, economic hardship, and the rise of extremist ideologies.
Factors Contributing to Political Instability:
Proliferation of Political Parties: The Weimar Republic featured numerous parties across the ideological spectrum (from Communists on the far-left to Nationalists on the far-right), making it difficult to form stable majority governments.
Coalition Governments: Coalition governments became the norm, often comprising disparate parties with conflicting interests.
Frequent Leadership Changes: The constant flux of coalition governments resulted in a staggering number of chancellors, hindering effective governance and reform.
Economic Challenges: Hyperinflation (peaking in 1923) eroded public confidence in the government's economic management, leading to protests and social unrest. Political parties often resorted to short-term, populist policies.
Extremist Threats: Far-right (e.g., Nazi Party) and far-left (e.g., Communist Party) extremist parties exploited governmental weaknesses, promoting radical agendas through street violence and attempted coups.
Lack of Public Trust: A significant portion of the German population viewed the Weimar Republic as weak, ineffective, and responsible for post-war woes, making it easier for extremist movements to gain traction.
Constitutional Vulnerabilities: The Weimar Constitution allowed the president to dissolve the Reichstag (parliament) and call for new elections, a power sometimes used to bypass parliamentary processes, causing further political upheaval.
Overall Impact: This complex interplay of factors made it challenging for the Weimar Republic to effectively address national issues, ultimately contributing to its downfall and the rise of the Nazi regime.
Germany: Social Position After World War I (1920s)
Weimar Republic's Contrasts: After Kaiser Wilhelm fled and Germany became the Weimar Republic in 1918, the new government granted significant rights and freedoms, fostering an era of creativity. However, it struggled to gain trust from a populace accustomed to monarchy, particularly amid economic crises and challenges from anti-democratic political parties.
Two Dominant Moods:
1. Excitement and Creativity:
Freedom of Expression: A burst of creativity flourished in art, music, dance, and architecture, leaving a lasting modern legacy.
Women's Empowerment: Women took on new roles, comprising roughly one-third of the German workforce, exercising their newly granted right to vote, and holding political office for the first time.
2. Anxiety and Fear:
Backlash Against Change: The rapid pace of expanding political rights and social freedoms made many Germans uneasy and generated backlash.
Fear of Communism: The takeover of Russia by communism and its threat to spread the abolition of private wealth and property to Germany (even by violence) heightened fears.
Economic Crises: Two major crises—the hyperinflation in the early years and the Great Depression in its final years—tested governmental leadership and intensified anxieties.
Political Violence: Parties from across the political spectrum clashed violently in the streets throughout the Weimar era, leaving citizens on edge.
Rise of Extremism: Ultra-conservative forces, especially the growing National Socialist Party (Nazis), gained enthusiastic support with messages of racial hatred and demands for a return to autocratic government.
Contemporary Observation: Artist George Grosz described Berlin as a "bubbling cauldron" with "speakers on every street corner and songs of hatred everywhere," targeting Jews, capitalists, communists, military, politicians, and others.
Historical Significance: Studying the Weimar Republic provides a crucial foundation for understanding the Nazi era that followed and serves as a warning and guide for democracies today, as its crises and dilemmas often parallel challenges faced by societies in transition.
Fundamental Rights of the German People (excerpt from Weimar Constitution, Article 109):
All Germans are equal before the law.
Men and women have the same fundamental civil rights and duties.
Public legal privileges or disadvantages of birth or rank are abolished.
Titles of nobility are regarded merely as part of the name and may no longer be bestowed.
Titles may only be bestowed when they indicate an office or profession; academic degrees are not affected hereby.
Orders and decorations shall not be conferred by the state.
No German shall accept titles or orders from a foreign government.
Crisis in the Balkans: The "Powder Keg" of Europe
History: A mountainous peninsula in southeastern Europe, home to diverse ethnic groups, with a long history of nationalist uprisings and ethnic clashes.
Ottoman Decline: By the early 1900s, the Ottoman Empire, which included the Balkan region, was rapidly declining.
New Nations: Some Balkan groups achieved independence from the Ottoman Turks, forming new nations such as Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.
Expansionist Nationalism: Nationalism remained a powerful force, with each new nation seeking to expand its borders.
Serbian Ambitions: Serbia, with a large Slavic population, aimed to absorb all Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula.
Russian Support: Russia, also a predominantly Slavic nation, supported Serbian nationalism.
Austro-Hungarian Opposition: Austria-Hungary, Serbia’s powerful northern neighbor, opposed Serbian expansion due to fears it would incite rebellion among its own Slavic population. Austria-Hungary feared that a strong, independent Serbia with ambitions to unite all Slavs in the region would directly threaten its own territorial integrity. The Austro-Hungarian Empire itself contained a significant Slavic population, and the rise of Serbian nationalism acted as a powerful magnet and inspiration for these groups within its borders. Any successful expansion of Serbia would potentially lead to increased unrest and secessionist movements among Austria-Hungary's own Slavic subjects, thereby destabilizing the multi-ethnic empire.
Bosnia and Herzegovina Annexation (1908): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, two Balkan areas with large Slavic populations. This enraged Serbian leaders, who had sought to rule these provinces.
Rising Tensions: Tensions between Serbia and Austria steadily increased, with Serbia vowing to reclaim Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary committing to crush any Serbian attempts to undermine its authority.