Psych Final

memory

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short - term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

long - term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

working memory

short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

implicit memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

sematic memories

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memories

explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories

∑memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long term potentiation

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

recency effect

tendency to recall last item on a list

primacy effect

tendency to recall first item on a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

repressed memories

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has corrupted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined.

déjà vu

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypotheses

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replicate

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observations

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

correlate

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplots

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

experiment

with a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

random assign

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double - blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variables

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debrief

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

phrenology

study of bumps on the brain

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change

neurons

a nerve cell

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus

dendrite

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

all or none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

increase a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

decreases a neurotransmitter’s action

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs