Motivation

Need

Need

= something that is required for survival

ex. food, belonging

Drive

= a physical or psychological state that propels animals to fulfill a need

ex. hunger

Motivation

= a process that starts, guides, and continues a behavior until a goal is

achieved

• motivated behaviors are intentional and goal-directed

ex. eating when we feel hunger

Instinct Theory

a theory of motivation

= automatic, innate behaviors in response to a physical need

• is an early, simplistic theory (Darwin + William James)

Fixed-Action Patterns

= a behavior seen in an entire species that is automatically triggered by a stimulus (and followed through until completion)

ex. change in sunlight → bird migration

• pretty much discredited (obsolete) except for some reflexes (ex. rooting reflex for infants)

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory of motivation

= individuals engage in certain behaviors to satisfy a biological drive (to maintain homeostasis)

Need → Drive → Drive-Reducing Behavior →__Homeostasis__ achieved!

• Employs Negative Reinforcement (do a behavior, eat, to reduce unpleasant feelings, hunger)

Arousal Theory

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven to maintain certain levels of stimulation/arousal

• diff people need diff levels of stimulation (couch potato vs. adrenaline junkie)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

= there is a relationship between arousal levels and optimal performance on a task

• the best level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task

Easy task → requires high arousal/stimulation

ex. going for a run (repetitive, boring) → putting on music (increases attention/interest)

hard task → requires low arousal/stimulation

ex. driving (needs attention) → turning off music (incresaes concentration, decreases too much stimulation)

SO, this law implies that “we need some stress for optimal performance (but not too much)”

Incentive Theory

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven by incentives

• explains why we still do things even though they don’t satisfy biological needs

Intrinsic Motivation

part of the Incentive Theory of motivation

= doing something for passion/curiosity/enjoyment (no reward)

• contributes to a sense of accomplishment/autonomy

Extrinsic Motivation

part of the Incentive Theory of motivation

= doing something to get a reward

Overjustification

when extrinsic motivation overrides intrinsic motivation

ex. when you used to love reading, but school assigned it as homework, so it’s not fun anymore

Humanistic Theory

(Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven by 5 different levels of needs

• start at bottom (basic biological survival needs), then move up as those are fulfilled (social)

  • most fulfill bottom, reaching top is harder

Physiological Needs

1st level of Maslow’s

• food, water, warmth, rest

• basic need

Safety Needs

2nd level of Maslow’s

• security

• basic need

Belongingness and Love

3rd level of Maslow’s

• intimate relationships, friendships

  • psychological Need

Esteem Needs

4th level of Maslow’s

• prestige and feeling of accomplishment

• Psychological Need

Self-Actualization

5th level of Maslow’s

= living to your potential to achieve your goals and dreams (personal growth)

• creative activities

Self-Transcendence

6th* level of Maslow’s

= seeks to further a cause beyond the self and to experience connection beyonf the boundaries of the self

• spiritual needs, cosmos

Flow

= state of optimal experience

• “in the zone”

• don’t notice criticism/anxiety/time passing

• activities that put people in this state are both highly challenging and also within the person’s abilities (high abilities)

  • dopamine levels increase in this state

Cognitive Theories

= how we think affects how we behave

Self Efficacy

a cognitive theory

= a person’s belief that their effort contributes to success

• people who think they’ll accomplish something tend to work harder/persist at even difficult problems

• “hard work pays off”

Cognitive Consistency

a cognitive theory

= behaving in ways that match our beliefs

ex. President of SADD doesn’t drink and drive

• opposite of cognitive dissoncance

Cognitive Dissonance

a cognitive theory

= discrepancy in behavior and beliefs

ex. smoking even though they know smoking causes cancer

ex. eating meat even though like animals

• causes anxiety

• can be reduced by either changing behavior (stopping smoking/eating meat) OR by changing beliefs (justifying that you’re eating “veal” instead of “baby cow”)

  • so they match

Self-Determination Theory

= there are 3 needs people must meet to be engaged in life and have persistence

1. Competence = mastery

2. Autonomy = Control over life

3. Relatedness = interactions with others, care and be cared for

if 3 not met, then: aggression, unhappiness, mental disorders

• associated with positive psychology and resilience

Competence

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= mastery

Autonomy

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= Control over life

Relatedness

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= interactions with others, care and be cared for

lateral hypothalamus

known as the hunger center,

• stimulates feeding

(Electrical stimulation of the __ ____ _ results in ravenous eating behavior)

ventromedial hypothalamus

brain structure integral to glucose regulation and appetite

• tells you how satiated you are

Leptin

a hormone secreted by fat cells to reduce appetite

Think: “Lessens” appetite

Ghrelin

hormone that stimulates brain

“I’m hungry”

• secreted by an empty stomach

• works with the lateral hypothalamus

Think: “Growlin” stomach (cuz you’re hungry)

obesity

= condition of having excess body fat resulting in overweight

• could lead to diabetes type 2

• hard on heart, knees, joints

Weight Set

once you reach this point at a certain age, body will settle on an ideal set point

• if you try to change it, homeostasis will work against you and try to revert back to ____

  • body bases this set point on fat cells, genetics, etc.

cultural aspect of eating

an aspect of eating

• “eating is involved in a lot of social events”

  • “let’s grab coffee/lunch”

• also involved in coping (comfort foods/boredom)

Excitement

1st stage of sexual response cycle

• clitoris/penis swell

• arousal increases steadily

Plateau

2nd stage of sexual response cycle

• breathing/pulse increase

• secretion from vagina and penis

• arousal steadies

Orgasm

3rd stage of sexual response cycle

• muscle contractions across the body

• pleasurable feeling of sexual release

  • arousal peaks

Resolution

4th stage of sexual response cycle

• arousal levels return to normal

• men have a longer refractory period

  • while women, after a short time, can go through cycle again

CBT for Sexual Dysfunction

= cognitive-behavioral therapy

• usually treats erectile dysfunction

• involves education, sensate focus, stimulus control, sexual skills training, and cognitive restructuring (the core component of cognitive therapy: to challenge dysfunctional sexual beliefs)

Kinsey’s studies on sexuality concluded that:

“sexual orientation is a continuum that varies with time”

Buss’s sexual strategies theory

humans evolved complex short-term and long-term mating strategies

sexual orientation

an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes

estrogen

• hormone produced mainly by the ovaries

• act as the principal female sex hormones

• induces estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans

testosterone

• male sex hormone

• stimulates the development of male reproductive organs,

• and secondary sex characteristics, (such as beard, bone, and muscle growth)

dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a role as a “reward center”

• memory, motivation, mood, attention

oxytocin

• traditionally associated with sex, breastfeeding, and childbirth,

• BUT almost any form of social bonding or positive physical contact can trigger _____ release

sexual schemas

blueprints for what we define as our role in:

• sexual expression,

• sexual orientation,

• sexual behaviors,

• sexual desires

Need for achievement

= psychological drive to accomplish things

• relates to the competence part of self-determination theory

• can be either extrinsic or intrinsic

• older siblings usually have a high level of this

Need to Belong

= desire to be accepted by people you care about

• related to the relatedness part of self-determination theory

too low = pathological/sociopath = don’t care about societal rules

• ex. I’m going to set my neighbor’s house on fire! what fun!!

too high = pathological/sociopath = know it’s wrong, but go to extreme lengths to please others (and react strongly to being excluded)

Need for Aggression

• evolutionarily makes sense: needed to protect offspring/territory/food

Hostile Aggression

= a type of aggression carried out for its own sake with the intention of causing harm

• maladaptive coping

ex. road rage, punching walls

• opposite of instrumental aggression

Instrumental Aggression

= a type of aggression used in the process of achieving a goal other than the aggression itself

• pre-meditated aggression and controlled (used for strategy as an instrument)

ex. being aggressive in the court room but not while playing with toddler

• opposite of hostile aggression

Need for Power

= need to have an impact on other people

ex. class president, captain, etc.

• tends to be linked with instrumental aggression