Motivation

Need

= something that is required for survival

ex. food, belonging

Drive

= a physical or psychological state that propels animals to fulfill a need

ex. hunger

Motivation

= a process that starts, guides, and continues a behavior until a goal is

achieved

* motivated behaviors are **intentional** and **goal-directed**

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ex. eating when we feel hunger

Instinct Theory

a theory of motivation

= automatic, innate behaviors in response to a physical need

* is an early, simplistic theory (Darwin + William James)

Fixed-Action Patterns

= a behavior seen in an entire species that is automatically triggered by a stimulus (and followed through until completion)

ex. change in sunlight → bird migration

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* pretty much discredited (obsolete) except for some reflexes (ex. rooting reflex for infants)

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory of motivation

= individuals engage in certain behaviors to satisfy a biological drive (to maintain homeostasis)

Need → Drive → Drive-Reducing Behavior →__Homeostasis__ achieved!

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* Employs Negative Reinforcement (do a behavior, eat, to reduce unpleasant feelings, hunger)

Arousal Theory

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven to maintain certain levels of stimulation/arousal

* diff people need diff levels of stimulation (couch potato vs. adrenaline junkie)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

= there is a relationship between arousal levels and optimal performance on a task

* the best level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task

Easy task → requires high arousal/stimulation

ex. going for a run (repetitive, boring) → putting on music (increases attention/interest)

hard task → requires low arousal/stimulation

ex. driving (needs attention) → turning off music (incresaes concentration, decreases too much stimulation)

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**SO, this law implies that “we need** ***some*** **stress for optimal performance (but not too much)”**

Incentive Theory

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven by incentives

* explains why we still do things even though they don’t satisfy biological needs

Intrinsic Motivation

part of the Incentive Theory of motivation

= doing something for passion/curiosity/enjoyment (no reward)

* contributes to a sense of accomplishment/autonomy

Extrinsic Motivation

part of the Incentive Theory of motivation

= doing something to get a reward

Overjustification

when extrinsic motivation overrides intrinsic motivation

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ex. when you used to love reading, but school assigned it as homework, so it’s not fun anymore

Humanistic Theory

(Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

a theory of motivation

= behaviors are driven by 5 different levels of needs

* start at bottom (basic biological survival needs), then move up as those are fulfilled (social)
* most fulfill bottom, reaching top is harder

Physiological Needs

1st level of Maslow’s

• food, water, warmth, rest

• basic need

Safety Needs

2nd level of Maslow’s

• security

• basic need

Belongingness and Love

3rd level of Maslow’s

* intimate relationships, friendships
* psychological Need

Esteem Needs

4th level of Maslow’s

• prestige and feeling of accomplishment

• Psychological Need

Self-Actualization

5th level of Maslow’s

= living to your potential to achieve your goals and dreams (personal growth)

* creative activities

Self-Transcendence

6th\* level of Maslow’s

= seeks to further a cause beyond the self and to experience connection beyonf the boundaries of the self

* spiritual needs, cosmos

Flow

= state of optimal experience

• “in the zone”

• don’t notice criticism/anxiety/time passing

• activities that put people in this state are both highly challenging and also within the person’s abilities (high abilities)

  • dopamine levels increase in this state

Cognitive Theories

= how we think affects how we behave

Self Efficacy

a cognitive theory

= a person’s belief that their effort contributes to success

• people who think they’ll accomplish something tend to work harder/persist at even difficult problems

• “hard work pays off”

Cognitive Consistency

a cognitive theory

= behaving in ways that match our beliefs

ex. President of SADD doesn’t drink and drive

* opposite of cognitive dissoncance

Cognitive Dissonance

a cognitive theory

= discrepancy in behavior and beliefs

ex. smoking even though they know smoking causes cancer

ex. eating meat even though like animals

• causes anxiety

• can be reduced by either changing behavior (stopping smoking/eating meat) OR by changing beliefs (justifying that you’re eating “veal” instead of “baby cow”)

  • so they match

Self-Determination Theory

= there are 3 needs people must meet to be engaged in life and have persistence

1. Competence = mastery

2. Autonomy = Control over life

3. Relatedness = interactions with others, care and be cared for

if 3 not met, then: aggression, unhappiness, mental disorders

• associated with positive psychology and resilience

Competence

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= mastery

Autonomy

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= Control over life

Relatedness

1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory

= interactions with others, care and be cared for

lateral hypothalamus

known as the hunger center,

* stimulates feeding

(Electrical stimulation of the __ ____ _ results in **ravenous** eating behavior)

ventromedial hypothalamus

brain structure integral to glucose regulation and appetite

* tells you how satiated you are

Leptin

a hormone secreted by fat cells to reduce appetite

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Think: “**Lessens”** appetite

Ghrelin

hormone that stimulates brain

“I’m hungry”

• secreted by an empty stomach

• works with the lateral hypothalamus

Think: “Growlin” stomach (cuz you’re hungry)

obesity

= condition of having excess body fat resulting in overweight

• could lead to diabetes type 2

• hard on heart, knees, joints

Weight Set

once you reach this point at a certain age, body will settle on an ideal set point

* if you try to change it, homeostasis will work against you and try to revert back to ____
* body bases this set point on fat cells, genetics, etc.

cultural aspect of eating

an aspect of eating

• “eating is involved in a lot of social events”

  • “let’s grab coffee/lunch”

• also involved in coping (comfort foods/boredom)

Excitement

1st stage of sexual response cycle

• clitoris/penis swell

• arousal increases steadily

Plateau

2nd stage of sexual response cycle

• breathing/pulse increase

• secretion from vagina and penis

• arousal steadies

Orgasm

3rd stage of sexual response cycle

• muscle contractions across the body

• pleasurable feeling of sexual release

  • arousal peaks

Resolution

4th stage of sexual response cycle

• arousal levels return to normal

• men have a longer refractory period

  • while women, after a short time, can go through cycle again

CBT for Sexual Dysfunction

= cognitive-behavioral therapy

• usually treats erectile dysfunction

• involves education, sensate focus, stimulus control, sexual skills training, and cognitive restructuring (the core component of cognitive therapy: to challenge dysfunctional sexual beliefs)

Kinsey’s studies on sexuality concluded that:

“sexual orientation is a continuum that varies with time”

Buss’s sexual strategies theory

humans evolved complex short-term and long-term mating strategies

sexual orientation

an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes

estrogen

• hormone produced mainly by the ovaries

• act as the principal female sex hormones

• induces estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans

testosterone

• male sex hormone

• stimulates the development of male reproductive organs,

• and secondary sex characteristics, (such as beard, bone, and muscle growth)

dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a role as a “reward center”

* memory, motivation, mood, attention

oxytocin

• traditionally associated with sex, breastfeeding, and childbirth,

• BUT almost any form of social bonding or positive physical contact can trigger _____ release

sexual schemas

blueprints for what we define as our role in:

• sexual expression,

• sexual orientation,

• sexual behaviors,

• sexual desires

Need for achievement

= psychological drive to accomplish things

• relates to the competence part of self-determination theory

• can be either extrinsic or intrinsic

• older siblings usually have a high level of this

Need to Belong

= desire to be accepted by people you care about

• related to the relatedness part of self-determination theory

too low = pathological/sociopath = don’t care about societal rules

• ex. I’m going to set my neighbor’s house on fire! what fun!!

too high = pathological/sociopath = know it’s wrong, but go to extreme lengths to please others (and react strongly to being excluded)

Need for Aggression

• evolutionarily makes sense: needed to protect offspring/territory/food

Hostile Aggression

= a type of aggression carried out for its own sake with the intention of causing harm

• maladaptive coping

ex. road rage, punching walls

• opposite of instrumental aggression

Instrumental Aggression

= a type of aggression used in the process of achieving a goal other than the aggression itself

• pre-meditated aggression and controlled (used for strategy as an instrument)

ex. being aggressive in the court room but not while playing with toddler

• opposite of hostile aggression

Need for Power

= need to have an impact on other people

ex. class president, captain, etc.

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* tends to be linked with instrumental aggression