= a physical or psychological state that propels animals to fulfill a need
ex. hunger
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Motivation
= a process that starts, guides, and continues a behavior until a goal is
achieved
* motivated behaviors are **intentional** and **goal-directed**
\ ex. eating when we feel hunger
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Instinct Theory
a theory of motivation
= automatic, innate behaviors in response to a physical need
* is an early, simplistic theory (Darwin + William James)
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Fixed-Action Patterns
= a behavior seen in an entire species that is automatically triggered by a stimulus (and followed through until completion)
ex. change in sunlight → bird migration
\ * pretty much discredited (obsolete) except for some reflexes (ex. rooting reflex for infants)
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Drive Reduction Theory
a theory of motivation
= individuals engage in certain behaviors to satisfy a biological drive (to maintain homeostasis)
Need → Drive → Drive-Reducing Behavior →__Homeostasis__ achieved!
\ * Employs Negative Reinforcement (do a behavior, eat, to reduce unpleasant feelings, hunger)
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Arousal Theory
a theory of motivation
= behaviors are driven to maintain certain levels of stimulation/arousal
* diff people need diff levels of stimulation (couch potato vs. adrenaline junkie)
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
= there is a relationship between arousal levels and optimal performance on a task
* the best level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task
Easy task → requires high arousal/stimulation
ex. going for a run (repetitive, boring) → putting on music (increases attention/interest)
hard task → requires low arousal/stimulation
ex. driving (needs attention) → turning off music (incresaes concentration, decreases too much stimulation)
\ **SO, this law implies that “we need** ***some*** **stress for optimal performance (but not too much)”**
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Incentive Theory
a theory of motivation
= behaviors are driven by incentives
* explains why we still do things even though they don’t satisfy biological needs
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Intrinsic Motivation
part of the Incentive Theory of motivation
= doing something for passion/curiosity/enjoyment (no reward)
* contributes to a sense of accomplishment/autonomy
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Extrinsic Motivation
part of the Incentive Theory of motivation
= doing something to get a reward
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Overjustification
when extrinsic motivation overrides intrinsic motivation
\ ex. when you used to love reading, but school assigned it as homework, so it’s not fun anymore
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Humanistic Theory
(Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)
a theory of motivation
= behaviors are driven by 5 different levels of needs
* start at bottom (basic biological survival needs), then move up as those are fulfilled (social) * most fulfill bottom, reaching top is harder
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Physiological Needs
1st level of Maslow’s
* food, water, warmth, rest * basic need
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Safety Needs
2nd level of Maslow’s
* security * basic need
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Belongingness and Love
3rd level of Maslow’s
* intimate relationships, friendships * psychological Need
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Esteem Needs
4th level of Maslow’s
* prestige and feeling of accomplishment * Psychological Need
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Self-Actualization
5th level of Maslow’s
= living to your potential to achieve your goals and dreams (personal growth)
* creative activities
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Self-Transcendence
6th\* level of Maslow’s
= seeks to further a cause beyond the self and to experience connection beyonf the boundaries of the self
* spiritual needs, cosmos
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Flow
= state of optimal experience
* “in the zone” * don’t notice criticism/anxiety/time passing * activities that put people in this state are both highly challenging and also within the person’s abilities (high abilities) * dopamine levels increase in this state
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Cognitive Theories
= how we think affects how we behave
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Self Efficacy
a cognitive theory
= a person’s belief that their effort contributes to success
* people who think they’ll accomplish something tend to work harder/persist at even difficult problems * “hard work pays off”
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Cognitive Consistency
a cognitive theory
= behaving in ways that match our beliefs
ex. President of SADD doesn’t drink and drive
* opposite of cognitive dissoncance
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Cognitive Dissonance
a cognitive theory
= discrepancy in behavior and beliefs
ex. smoking even though they know smoking causes cancer
ex. eating meat even though like animals
* causes anxiety * can be reduced by either changing behavior (stopping smoking/eating meat) OR by changing beliefs (justifying that you’re eating “veal” instead of “baby cow”) * so they match
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Self-Determination Theory
= there are 3 needs people must meet to be engaged in life and have persistence
\ 1) Competence = mastery
2) Autonomy = Control over life
3) Relatedness = interactions with others, care and be cared for
\ if 3 not met, then: aggression, unhappiness, mental disorders
\ * associated with positive psychology and resilience
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Competence
1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory
= mastery
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Autonomy
1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory
= Control over life
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Relatedness
1 of the 3 needs of self-determination theory
= interactions with others, care and be cared for
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lateral hypothalamus
known as the hunger center,
* stimulates feeding
(Electrical stimulation of the __ ____ _ results in **ravenous** eating behavior)
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ventromedial hypothalamus
brain structure integral to glucose regulation and appetite
* tells you how satiated you are
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Leptin
a hormone secreted by fat cells to reduce appetite
\ Think: “**Lessens”** appetite
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Ghrelin
hormone that stimulates brain
“I’m hungry”
* secreted by an empty stomach
* works with the lateral hypothalamus
Think: “**Growlin**” stomach (cuz you’re hungry)
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obesity
= condition of having excess body fat resulting in overweight
* could lead to diabetes type 2 * hard on heart, knees, joints
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Weight Set
once you reach this point at a certain age, body will settle on an ideal set point
* if you try to change it, homeostasis will work against you and try to revert back to ____ * body bases this set point on fat cells, genetics, etc.
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cultural aspect of eating
an aspect of eating
* “eating is involved in a lot of social events” * “let’s grab coffee/lunch” * also involved in coping (comfort foods/boredom)
* breathing/pulse increase * secretion from vagina and penis * arousal steadies
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Orgasm
3rd stage of sexual response cycle
* muscle contractions across the body * pleasurable feeling of sexual release * arousal peaks
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Resolution
4th stage of sexual response cycle
* arousal levels return to normal * men have a longer refractory period * while women, after a short time, can go through cycle again
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CBT for Sexual Dysfunction
= cognitive-behavioral therapy
* usually treats erectile dysfunction * involves education, sensate focus, stimulus control, sexual skills training, and cognitive restructuring (the core component of cognitive therapy: to challenge dysfunctional sexual beliefs)
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Kinsey’s studies on sexuality concluded that:
“sexual orientation is a continuum that varies with time”
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Buss’s sexual strategies theory
humans evolved complex short-term and long-term mating strategies
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sexual orientation
an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes
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estrogen
* hormone produced mainly by the ovaries
* act as the principal female sex hormones * induces estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans
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testosterone
* male sex hormone
* stimulates the development of male reproductive organs, * and secondary sex characteristics, (such as beard, bone, and muscle growth)
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dopamine
neurotransmitter that plays a role as a “reward center”
* memory, motivation, mood, attention
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oxytocin
\ * traditionally associated with sex, breastfeeding, and childbirth, * BUT almost any form of social bonding or positive physical contact can trigger _____ release
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sexual schemas
blueprints for what we define as our role in:
* sexual expression, * sexual orientation, * sexual behaviors, * sexual desires
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Need for achievement
= psychological drive to accomplish things
* relates to the competence part of self-determination theory * can be either extrinsic or intrinsic * older siblings usually have a high level of this
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Need to Belong
= desire to be accepted by people you care about
* related to the relatedness part of self-determination theory
\ too low = pathological/sociopath = don’t care about societal rules
* ex. I’m going to set my neighbor’s house on fire! what fun!!
too high = pathological/sociopath = know it’s wrong, but go to extreme lengths to please others (and react strongly to being excluded)
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Need for Aggression
* \ * evolutionarily makes sense: needed to protect offspring/territory/food
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Hostile Aggression
= a type of aggression carried out for its own sake with the intention of causing harm
* maladaptive coping
ex. road rage, punching walls
\ * opposite of instrumental aggression
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Instrumental Aggression
= a type of aggression used in the process of achieving a goal other than the aggression itself
* pre-meditated aggression and controlled (used for strategy as an __instrument__)
ex. being aggressive in the court room but not while playing with toddler
* opposite of hostile aggression
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Need for Power
= need to have an impact on other people
ex. class president, captain, etc.
\ * tends to be linked with instrumental aggression