Studied by 2 peopleabsolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
accommodation (sensation + perception)
(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
accomodation (developmental psychology)
(2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
active listening
empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client-centered therapy
acute schizophrenia (reactive schizophrenia)
a form of _____ that can begin at any age; frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event
adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
adolescence
a transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
affiliation need
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
agoraphobia
fear of avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
alcohol use disorder / alcoholism
alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone-- use of heuristics
all-or-none response
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Alzheimer’s disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
amphetamines
drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body function and associated energy and mood changes
amygdala
two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, especially fear and anger
androgny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors— SSRIs.)
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; _____ is the capacity to learn
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that aren’t involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose use to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition
audition
the sense or act of hearing
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (like the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
babbling stage
beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy output
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings,a nd actions
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
behavioral approach
focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory behavior that marks bulimia nervosa
biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
(aka behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
bipolar disorder
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Broca’s area
helps control language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
cannon-bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
catharsis
the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cordce
ntral route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
cerebellum
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chronic schizophrenia (aka process schizophrenia)
a form of ________ in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs authomatically
circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
client-centered therapy (aka person-centered therapy)
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within an accepting, genuine, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment/ for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
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