PSY240 - Midterm Review

Midterm One covering: - What is abnormal, history and approach - clinical assessment, Diagnosis, and research - Anxiety and Obsession disorders - Trauma and dissociation - Mood disorders

Psychological disorder

A psychological disorder refers to a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, emotions, or behaviours that cause distress or impair functioning. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. Treatment often involves therapy, medication, or a combination of both.

Scientist-practitioner

A scientist-practitioner is an approach in the field of psychology that emphasizes the integration of scientific research and clinical practice. It involves using scientific methods to inform and guide clinical decision-making and interventions. The scientist-practitioner model promotes the use of empirical evidence and critical thinking in providing effective and evidence-based psychological services.

Clinical Description

A clinical description refers to a detailed account or explanation of the signs, symptoms, and characteristics of a medical condition or disease. It typically includes information about the patient's history, physical examination findings, laboratory test results, and any other relevant clinical data. The purpose of a clinical description is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the condition and aid in diagnosis and treatment.

Supernatural tradition

Deviant behaviour - the idea between good and evil

• Demons and witches - madness causes by evils

• Stress and melancholy - insanity as natural - treatable with sleep and rest

• Possession - a divine interaction to punish for wrongdoings

• Moon and stars - ex. lunatic

Hippocrates and Galen

Both were physcians’s during ancient Greece - looked at disorders as imbalance of bodily fluids - bile, blood, phlegm

Syphilis

Caused by germs - lead to death - has the idea that this madness could be cured

19th centaury

Insanity had physically causes - could be treated with physical rest, good diet, and proper room and ventilation - idea that mentally ill can be treated as physically ill

Moral Therapy

Encouraged humane, social treatment to patients

Asylum reform

asylums provided a lot of mental and positive effect on the treatments of patients

Mental Hygiene movement

The Mental Hygiene movement was a social and educational campaign that emerged in the early 20th century. It aimed to promote mental health and prevent mental illness through various strategies, including public education, advocacy, and the establishment of mental health services. The movement emphasized the importance of mental well-being and sought to reduce the stigma surrounding mental illness. It played a significant role in shaping modern approaches to mental health and contributed to the development of psychiatric and psychological services.

Psychoanalytic movement

Freud - the unconscious mind as the basis for psychological disorders

catharsis - release of emotional tension

Id, Ego, Superego

Id - the pleasure principle

Ego - the mediator between Id and Superego - reality

Superego - the moral principle

Psychosexual stages of development

The psychosexual stages of development are a theory proposed by Sigmund Freud. According to Freud, there are five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage is characterized by a focus on a different erogenous zone and the resolution of specific conflicts. The successful completion of each stage is believed to contribute to healthy psychological development.

Free association

Patient says whatever comes to mind

Dream analysis

Patient recalls their dreams and the psychologist identifies and analyzes it

Humanistic Theory

Maslow hierarchy of needs

person centered therapy and unconditional positive regard

Person-centered Therapy

Person-centered therapy, also known as client-centered therapy, is a humanistic approach to psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers. It emphasizes the importance of the therapeutic relationship and the client's subjective experience. The therapist provides a supportive and non-judgmental environment, allowing the client to explore their feelings, thoughts, and experiences. The goal is to promote self-discovery, personal growth, and self-acceptance. This approach believes that individuals have the capacity for self-healing and personal growth when provided with the necessary conditions for change.

The Behavioral Model

The idea that the mind is not important and all traits and to know of a person comes from the behaviors

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response. It was first described by Ivan Pavlov in his experiments with dogs. The process involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits a response, with a neutral stimulus (NS) that initially does not elicit a response. Over time, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original response to the UCS. This type of conditioning is widely used in psychology and has applications in various fields.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. It involves the use of rewards or punishments to shape and modify behaviour. B.F. Skinner developed this type of conditioning. It is based on the principle that reinforced behaviours are more likely to be repeated, while punished behaviours are less likely to be repeated. It is commonly used in various settings, such as education, parenting, and animal training.

Scientific method

The scientific method is a systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and understand the natural world. It involves making observations, formulating a hypothesis, conducting experiments or gathering data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions. This method helps to ensure that scientific research is objective, reliable, and reproducible.

One-dimensional model

A one-dimensional model refers to a simplified representation or analysis of a system that considers only one dimension or variable.

• A single cause

Multidimensional model

The cause of behavior to many causes

Behavioral influences

phobias can be conditioned and can be generalized to other situations

Biological influences

Biological influences play a significant role in the development of psychological disorders. These influences include genetic factors, brain structure and function, neurotransmitter imbalances, and hormonal abnormalities. Genetic predisposition can increase the likelihood of certain disorders, while abnormalities in brain structure and function can affect cognitive and emotional processes. Imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, can contribute to mood disorders, while hormonal abnormalities can impact mood regulation and stress response. Overall, understanding the biological influences on psychological disorders is crucial for effective diagnosis and treatment.

Emotional influences

Thoughts and feelings affect the body’s biology and emotions can lead to many disorders

Social Influences

Society and culture’s can influence behavior and support or rejection of one’s family/friends

Developmental influences

Critical developmental periods - combined with other factors can lead to the onset of disorders

Genetic contributions

genes and the role of inheritance can lead to the inheritance of gene-linked disorders

Diathesis-stress model

The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that suggests that mental disorders develop as a result of a combination of genetic or biological vulnerabilities (diathesis) and environmental stressors. According to this model, individuals with a predisposition or vulnerability to a particular disorder are more likely to develop the disorder when exposed to stressful life events or circumstances.

• May be biased and unable to replicate studies

The gene-environment Correlation model

Genes that may be turned on to certain environmental cues can increase the probability of the onset of an disorder

Inheritance of Behavior

Gene expression passed on one generation to the next

The CNS

Brain and spinal cord - building blocks of Neurons throughout the nervous system

Structure of the brain

Forebrain(cerebral cortex(4 lobes), Mid brain(thalamus, hypothalamus), Hindbrain(medullae, ponds, cerebellum), Brainstem(autonomic function)

The peripheral nervous system

consists of the

• somatic nervous system - controls muscles

• Autonomic nervous system

  • SNS and PNS

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the nervous system that transmit signals between neurons.

Glutamate

Excitatory - 80% of nervous system uses it - leads to action

GABA

Inhibitory - regulates transmission of AP

Serotonin

Regulates mood and behavior as well as thought processes /

Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in the body's stress response. It is released by the adrenal glands and acts on the sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness. It is also involved in mood regulation and attention.

Dopamine

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain that plays a crucial role in various functions such as motivation, reward, and pleasure. It is involved in regulating movement, mood, and cognitive processes. Dopamine is synthesized in certain areas of the brain and is released when we experience something pleasurable or rewarding. It helps transmit signals between nerve cells and is associated with feelings of pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement. Imbalances in dopamine levels have been linked to various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addiction.

3 big networks

The salience network is a brain network involved in detecting and filtering important or salient stimuli from the environment. It helps in directing attention and prioritizing information processing.

The central executive control network

Default mode network

Learned helplessness

Learned helplessness is a psychological concept that refers to a state of passive resignation or lack of response to negative or aversive situations, even when escape or avoidance is possible. It is typically associated with repeated experiences of uncontrollable events, leading individuals to believe that they have no control over their circumstances. This concept was first studied by Martin Seligman and his colleagues in the 1960s.S

Social Learning

Social learning refers to the process of acquiring new behaviours, attitudes, or knowledge through observing and imitating others. It involves learning from the experiences and actions of others in social contexts.

Prepared learning

Selective learning - we learn things that will protect us - being prepared

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on the connection between thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. It aims to help individuals identify and change negative or unhelpful patterns of thinking and behaviour. CBT is commonly used to treat various mental health conditions, such as anxiety disorders, depression, and phobias. It typically involves structured sessions where the therapist and client work together to set goals, challenge distorted thinking, and develop coping strategies. CBT has been extensively researched and has shown effectiveness in improving mental health outcomes.

Emotions

Emotions are complex psychological and physiological states that are often triggered by specific events or experiences. They involve subjective feelings, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise, and can influence our thoughts, behaviours, and physical sensations. Emotions play a crucial role in human interactions, decision-making, and overall well-being.

The principle of Equifinality

The principle of equifinality states that there are multiple ways to achieve the same outcome or goal. It suggests that different initial conditions or paths can lead to the same final result.

Clinical assessment and diagnosis

DSM 5 - assessment depends on reliability,  validity, standardization

The clinical interview

systemic observation of behavior

Mental status exam

looks at the appearance, behaviour, thought processes,  mood, intellect, and awareness  of the patient 

Behavioral assessment(2)

Targets the behaviors observed

• informal observation(initial)

• formal observation(to look at a pattern of behavior) 

Reactivity

Reactivity in psychology refers to the phenomenon where individuals modify their behavior or responses due to the awareness of being observed or studied. This can lead to altered or biased results in research studies, as participants may not behave naturally or truthfully

ABC of behaviours

antecedents, behaviour, consequences

Psychological testing

determining cognitive, emotional, and behavioural responses - neurobiological and intelligence testing

Projective testing

inkblot test and thematic apperception test

Neuropsychological testing(2)

gestalt and neuropsychological battery tests - can lead to false positives and false negatives and fatigue

Neuroimaging of the brain

• brain structures and brain functions can be seen

• MRI, CT, X-ray, PET scan - brain structures 

• FMRI - functions and imaging

Psychophysical assessment

heart rate, breathing rate, electrodermal response(sweating), heart rate variability

Diagnosis classification issue

Human behaviour in the context of abnormal is controversial - abnormal and normal distinctions unclear 

• Diagnosis must be reliable, and valid - need social and cultural implications

Labelling

categorizing a persona as just their disorder 

Stigma

negative to the person with impaired cognitive abilities or behavioural functioning 

Research methodology:

hypothesis, indv and depv, internal validity(does it work) and external validity(can it be replicated)

Randomization

avoids bias in research

Case study method

correlates with Freud's ideas but only has internal validity and conditions occur

Correlation

the relationship between two variables, correlation does not equal causation: positive, negative, none

Incidence

number of cases during a specific period

Prevalence

the number of people with a disorder at one time

Experimental design

change and manipulate IV to see the effect of change on behaviours

Placebo effect

change in behaviour due to the expectation of a person

Double-blind

participants and researchers are unaware of the placebo

Studying genetics

adoption studies and twin studies

Genetic linkage analysis

studying inherited characteristics(of disorders) in families 

Association studies

compare genetic markers in people with and without a disorder 

Cross-sectional designs

cross-section of a population across different age groups 

Longitudinal studies

follow one group over time  - cross-generational effects 

Anxiety

a negative effect and somatic responses - feelings that one cannot predict or control upcoming events

The cycle of anxiety

a sense of danger that isn't there, fleeing leads to relief, ends up being a long-term response to avoid such behaviours again

Panic attacks - cued and uncued

strong sympathetic arousal - immediate alarm reaction - tendency to escape in response to danger

Causes of anxiety

specific brain circuits, neurotransmitter systems, and corticotropin-releasing factors - adrenaline(short-term) and cortisol(long-term) - fight or flight

Anxiety onset

anxious behaviour starts in childhood, overprotective or over-intrusive parents - conditioning develops

Social contributions of anxiety

stressful life events, social, interpersonal - genetics can also be a factor

Comorbidity

occurrence of two or more disorders in a single person ex. Depression and anxiety are comorbid commonly - coping is difficult

Generalized Anxiety disorder

uncontrollable worrying all day, feelings of doom even after success, can’t stop the worry cycle - need to worry

Physical symptoms of generalized Anxiety disorder

muscle tension, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, continuous arousal of the autonomic system and worry about everything

Anxiety in population stats

 ⅔ females have anxiety in Canada - more common in females over the age of 15

Causes of Generalized Anxiety disorder

genetics - runs in the family, greater risk in monozygotic twins - think anxiety is good, so you worry more but it is detrimental to proper cognition - intrusive to thoughts

Treatment of Generalized Anxiety disorder

drugs like Benzodiazepines, antidepressants(to be more calm), and CBT - effective in youth and older adults - help to disrupt the cycle

Panic Disorders

 the sensation of dying or losing control - panic attacks

Agoraphobia

fear and avoidance of unfazed and inescapable situations - provoke fear and panic

Panic attacks and agoraphobia stats

more common in women than men - men onset in ages 25-29(or after puberty)

Cultural influences of panic and agoraphobia

expression varies worldwide - highest in white Americans and lowest in Asian Americans 

Causes of Panic disorder and agoraphobia

genetic vulnerability to stress, learned alarms(somatic sensation), and development of anxiety can accompany PD

Treatment of Panic disorders and agoraphobia

drugs such as benzodiazepines, SSRIs and SNRIs - may relapse if medication is stopped - PCT or combined psychological and drug treatments as well(more beneficial) - behavioural treatments as well

Specific Phobia

an irrational fear of a specific object or situation and affects the individual's ability to function. Blood-injury-injection, natural phobias, animal phobias, etc

Specific phobia Stats

about 6% of Canadians, more in women than men - usually goes untreated and tends to be culturally specific

Causes of Specific phobias

traumatic experiences, panic attacks, social and cultural factors, and stress over certain things can lead to the development of false alarms that can become conditioned