research methods paper 2 (booklet 1)

paper 2

falsification

does not mean that something is false, rather that if it is false, then this can be shown by observation or experimentation

objectivity

Researchers must maintain objectivity in their investigations

Methods with high control tend to be more objective

Objectivity is the basis for the empirical method

Replicability

If a science theory is to be trusted, the findings must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances

Replicability can help determine the validity of a finding

Empirical methods

Methods of gaining knowledge which rely on direct observation or testing (not hearsay or rational argument)

A theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified

anecdotal data

data not based on facts, based on opinions

empirical data

data that is based upon facts

hypothesis

a testable prediction. Predictions are based on behaviour

experimental methods

are scientific methods that show clear causes and effects identified

types of experimental methods

1. laboratory experiments

2. field experiments

3. natural experiments

4. quast experiments

non experimental methods

something that is not conducted in controlled environments

types of non experimental methods

1. observations

2. questionnaires

3. interviews

4. case studies

5. content analyses

6. correlational analyses

7. meta analyses

laboratory experiment

• An experiment carried out in a controlled environment 

• Where variables can be carefully manipulated

• Participants are aware they are taking part but may not know the true aims of the study

field experiment

• conducted in a more natural (or ‘ordinary’) environment 

• As with a laboratory experiment, the IV is still deliberately manipulated by the researcher and the researcher measures the DV

• Participants are usually not aware that they are participating in an experiment

natural experiment

• Conducted when it is not possible, for ethical or practical reasons, to deliberately manipulate an IV. 

• The IV occurs ‘naturally’

Quasi experiment

• The IV is simply a difference between people that exists e.g. gender/age, disorder/control, a DV is still measured.

• E.g. Do females drive faster than males? Do blondes have more fun? Do people with OCD have more anxiety than those without?

mundane realism

normal everyday life

Extraneous variables (EVs)

anything (other than IV) which might have an effect on the DV. These variables can be controlled by the experimenter 

Confounding variables (CV)

variables that aren't controlled for in an experiment- and which do affect the result (ruin them)

Hypothesis

is a formal, unambiguous statement of what is predicted. It must contain both conditions of an IV and the expected outcome of the DV, be operationalised and measurable 

Operationalised

how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study so that another researcher could conduct the same experience again (replicability) 

Reliability

consistency. Are you going to get the same results? 

Internal reliability

each participant is treated the same way 

External reliability

same results found after repeated test 

Validity

accuracy (representativeness)

Internal validity

IV effect only? Measures what its meant to measure 

External validity

generalisable beyond experimental setting

target population

the group of people the researcher wishes to generalise their findings to

demand characteristics

a participant changing their behaviour to meet the aim of the investigation. Can lead participants to change their behaviours or responses based on what they think the research is about

Investigator effects

the effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the researchers outcome

Single blind design

when a participant is unaware of the research aims of an investigation (but the researcher is aware)

Double blind design

when neither the participants or the researcher are aware of the research aims of an investigation (to avoid demand characteristics and investigator bias)

control group

a group of participants who do not undergo change in IV condition- used as a baseline behaviour measure

confederate

an individual in a study who is not a real participant but has been instructed how to behave by the researcher

random allocation

a technique used to reduce participants variables, so each participant has the same chance of being in any condition

randomisation

the use of chance methods to control for effects of bias when designing materials deciding the order of conditions

standardisation

using the same standardised procedures and instructions for all participants in a study (to avoid negative investigator effects)

Pilot study

a small scale trial run to check procedures, instructions, materials, work etc in order to make any necessary changes before the real study

Why are they carried out?

allows researchers to make necessary adjustments before the real study

Advantages of a pilot study

• able to check whether experiments will fail

• able to check certain. factors that will limit results without time wasting or reveal the aim to participants

Independent groups

-Recruit a group of participants 

-Divide them into two

-One group does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 1

-Other group does the task with the IV set for condition 2

-Measure the DV for each group

-Compare the results 

Repeated measures

a research design in which subjects are measured two or more times on the dependent variable. Rather than using different participants for each level of treatment, the participants are given more than one treatment and are measured after each.

Matched pairs

-Recruit group of participants 

-Find out what sorts of people you have in the group 

-Treat the experiment as independent measures

-Recruit another group that matched relevant characteristics 

-Compare the results for the matched pairs

Opportunity sampling

anyone in the vicinity who is willing and available

Random sampling

all members of the target population have an equal chance of being elected

Stratified sampling

reflects the sampling/proportions of people in subgroups of the target population

Systematic sampling

every nth member of the target population is selected

Volunteer sampling

a self selected sample, often replying to an advert

Ethical guidelines

Guidelines about how you should treat the human participants in research; to safeguard participants in psychological research

Retrospective consent

During a debrief, after the study has been completed ask for the participants to consent to their data being used.

Presumptive consent

Ask a group of people who are similar to the participant whether they would consent to taking part in the study and then presume that the participant would answer in the same way

Prior general consent

PPs give permission to take part in a number of different studies in which some of the studies may include an element of deception.

Debrief

A thorough explanation of the reasons for any ethical issues caused by the conflicts of the research. 

Includes any reasons participants have to be deceived or harmed

Cost benefit analysis

Ethics committee weight up costs (harm to participants) and benefits (value of research) before deciding whether a study should go ahead

C.D.H.C

consent, deception, harm, confidentiality

Naturalistic

Studied in a natural setting.

Everything is left as it would be normally.

Researcher does not interfere.

Controlled

Some variables are controlled by the researcher

Pps know they are being studied.

Usually conducted in laboratory conditions.

Overt

The pps are aware of the observation

Covert

Participants are NOT aware of the observation

Participant

The observer joins the group being studied (unbeknownst to the group).

The behaviour is studied from the ‘inside’

Non- participant

The observer watches from a distance, and does not 

interact with the people being studied.

Structured

An organised observation, where behavioural categories and sampling procedures are used 

Unstructured

The researcher records all relevant behaviour, without a system in place.  (ie notes down everything that happens, as it happens/films the observation, for rating later on).

Types of observations

1. Naturalistic

2. Controlled

3. overt

4. Covert

5. Participant

6. Non-participant

7. Structured

8. Unstructured

Behavioural categories

• Categorising the behaviours intended to be viewed.

• Categories are usually decided before the observation takes place.

• Operationalising the behaviours is important (inter observer reliability).

• Usually put into a tally chart, for observers to fill out during the observation.

Event sampling

Counting the number of times a specific behaviour/s occurs within a set period of time (e.g 2hrs)

Usually using behavioural categories in a structured observation

Time sampling

Recording any behaviours which occur in a given set time interval e.g. recording what is happening for 1 minute, every 30 mins, for an afternoon/day.

Questionnaires

made up of a pre-sorted lists of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds

Advantages of questionnaires

• Participants can take their own time- people more likely to participate 

• Quantitative data is easier to analyse 

• Easily replicable 

• Can be distributed to lots of people 

• Questions can be straightforwards 

Disadvantages of questionnaires

• Mostly closed questionnaires which can limit the response and reduce validity 

• Less detailed 

• Social desirability bias 

• Anonymity can cause difficulty in knowing if participants have told the truth

Open questionnaires

Respondent provide their own answers expressed in words 

Example: How are you finding studying psychology?

-responses are not restricted 

-difficult to analyse

Closed questionnaires

respondent has limited choices

E.g. How many hours do you spend on psychology homework per week?

-easier to analyse 

-responses restricted 

Writing good questions

1. Avoid Jargon- make sure the questions can be easy to answer by everybody (avoid difficult language that non-psychologist wouldnt understand)

2. Avoid leading question- to avoid bias and social desirability in answers

3. Use appropriate language- be mindful of age and culture

4. Use of filler questions- to avoid participants guessing the aims of the investigation 

Also helpful to consider: 

1. Filler questions 

2. Sequence of questions

3. Sampling technique

4. Pilot study

Interviews

face-to-face interactions between interviewer and interviewee

Advantages of interviews

• More open questions- greater detail- better understanding 

• More likely to tell if participant is lying 

• Clarify- participants can ask questions 

• Better awareness of truthfulness of interviewee e.g. body language

Disadvantages of interviews

• Less easy to analyse 

• Social desirability bias 

• Takes longer to carry out (time)

• Can't replicate 

• More pressure /anxiety on participants to answer questions 

• Interview bias

• Harder to distribute- fewer participants 

Structured interviews

A list of pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order.

Unstructured

No set questions, there is a general topic to be discussed, but the interaction is free-flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate.

Semi-structured

A list of questions that have been worked out in advance, but interviewers ask further questions based on previous answers

Things interviews must consider

1. Quiet room- avoid distractions 

2. Rapport- participants will give more details when they are in a comfortable situation 

3. Ethics- do not deceive or stress. Answers must remain confidential, consent must be obtained. Withdrawal must be offered. Questions must not be socially sensitive 

4. Social desirability basis- giving socially favourable answers due to the presence of the interviewer

5. Interviewer effects- the effect of the interviewers presence has on answers, causing the bias  

6. Recording the interview – writing notes; however may interfere with listening skills and make pps feel they are being evaluated. May be audio or video recorded

7.  Questioning skills (in an unstructured interview) – e.g. knowing what follow up q’s to ask, avoiding too much probing, and including more focused q’s.

Social desirability

giving socially favourable answers due to the presence of the interviewers

Interviewer effects

the effect of the interviewers presence has on answers, causing the bias  

Correlation

a method of data analysis used to find an association (or relationship) between two co-variables.  It will never show cause and effect, simply just how two variables are related.

What is a correlation usually shown by?

Scatter graph

Correlation Coefficient

is a number (between -1, +1) which informs us of the strength and direction of the relationship between the two co-variables.

What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?

A correlation is ONLY assessing the relationship between two co-variables, NOT like an experiment which is looking for a significant difference (cause and effect) between an IV and a DV.  Cause and effect cannot be established in a correlation analysis.

Strengths of correlation analysis

• Useful starting point for research

• Relatively economical (usually secondary data)

Weaknesses of correlation analysis

• No cause and effect can (or should) be established

• Intervening variables may explain the relationship seen, and lead to false conclusions.

Meta analysis

Collating results from many larger studies (on a specific topic) to see an overall picture of the findings.

Advantages of meta analysis

 An overview can lead to a more accurate understanding of a behaviour (removes individual experimenter bias)

Disadvantage of meta analysis

Not using your own data - which removes the need to worry about ethics- but no knowledge of accuracy of data

Case study

A detailed, in-depth analysis of an individual or small group.  Tend to be longitudinal studies gathering large amounts of (usually qualitative) data from many sources.

Advantages of case studies

• Rich, detailed insight enabling the study of unusual behaviour.  

• Also often used to support/challenge other larger-scale research.

Disadvantages of case studies

• Can be prone to researcher bias.  

• Also not reliable and has very little population validity.

Content analysis

studying people indirectly through the communications they have produced

• A method of quantifying qualitative content via coding/categorisation

• A form of (indirect) observation that examines

• Turning qualitative data into quantitative data using (and tallying) categories.

• The categories are known as coding units, e.g. certain themes mentioned, certain words used, certain characters described in text.

Sampling methods

Speech, text, books, magazines, tv, social media, newspapers

Coding the data

Producing quantitative data by categorising into meaningful units and counting up how many times they occur

Examples of data

word, theme, character, time and space

Pre-existing categories

categories set before beginning of research 

Emergent categories

categories emerge when examining data. Themes revised (start broad, then revisit and narrow down themes)

Thematic analysis

Any emerging themes that are recurrent in the communication are then studied in more depth (further qualitative analysis is carried out). More descriptive than coding units