Hydroxyl identification
-OH
Amino identification
-NH2 or -NH3+
Methyl identification
CH3
Carbonyl identification
C=O, could be aldehyde or ketone depending on where the group is on the molecule (middle or end)
Ketone identification -C=O in the middle of a molecule
Aldehyde identification -C=O at the end of a molecule
Sulfhydryl identification -SH
Carboxyl identification
-COOH or -COO-
Phosphate identification
-PO4
Properties of Hydroxyls
Polar/hydrophilic; found in carbohydrates
Ketone description
Found within a carbon skeleton (the carbon double bonded to oxygen has carbons on either side), important in energy reactions
Aldehyde description
Found at the end of a carbon skeleton (the carbon double bonded to oxygen has a hydrogen on one side), very reactive
Properties of Amines
Basic, Polar/Hydrophilic, accepts H+ ions from the environment
Properties of Sulfhydryls
Polar/Hydrophilic; help stabilize proteins by allowing formation of disulfide bridges
Properties of Methyls
Nonpolar/Hydrophobic, can be added to DNA molecules to deactivate the gene
Properties of Phosphates
Polar/Hydrophilic; important in energy transfer
Properties of Carboxyls
Polar/Hydrophilic; acidic
When amino acids join together join together, the
N-C-C is the center of the molecule is known as its backbone and is a defining feature of amino acids
A highly electronegative atom on the end of an R-group willcause
the amino acid to be polar and a series of hydrocarbon on the end of an R-group will cause the amino acid to be polar
In Carbs, sugars occur
as a ring structure
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
single rings, double rings, and larger ring structures
In solutions, single rings can dynamically change from
straight chains to rings back to straight chains
glucose can be found as in
isomer
an isomer is a
compound the that has the same chemical formula but a different physical structure
Sugars can be joined together in long chains to form macromolecules called
starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
A plant's starch and an animal's starch are easily
broken down into sugars for energy.
Cellulose is made primarily in plants
can be broken down by a few organisms in the world
lipids are
hydrophobic
lipids may have a few polar bonds associated with oxygen, depending on the specific molecule, but on the whole
lipids consist mostly of hydrocarbons
fatty acids can exist alone as a single chain of
hydrocarbons, or can join a glycerol molecule to form larger molecules with multiple chains
fatty acids that contain no double bonds are considered
saturated
fatty acids that contain at least one double bond are considered
unsaturated
saturated fats are
solid at room temperature because the chains pack together more densely than do unsaturated fats, which are liquid at room temperature and less dense.
saturated fats tend
to be found in land animals; unsaturated fats tend to be found in plants and fish
purine
a nitrogenous base that has a double-ring structure; one of the two general categories of nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA; either adenine or guanine
pyrimidines
thymine and cytosine
macromolecule (polymer) Polysaccharide complex carbohydrate monomer
monosaccharides
what type of bond when joining 2 monomers together through dehydration synthesis of monosaccarides
glycosidic linkage
fat (lipid) monomer
glycerol, fatty acids
type of bond formed when joining 2 monomers through dehydration synthesis of lipids
ester bond
polypeptide (protein) monomer
amino acids
type of bond formed when joining 2 monomers through dehydration synthesis of polypeptides
peptide bond
nucleic acid monomers
nucleoacides (phosphate + nitrogenous bases + sugars)
type of bond formed when joining 2 monomers through dehydration synthesis
phosphodiester bond
dehydration synthesis (condensation) reaction
-monomers join to build macromolecules (polymers) using dehydration synthesis reactions. -H from one monomer and OH from the other monomer are REMOVED. The H and OH combine to form WATER.
every sugar/carbs have
lots of oxygen Most likely a 1:1 ratio.
Hydrolysis
-Macromolecules are BROKEN DOWN into smaller molecules -WATER is ADDED which causes the bond joining monomers to break -It is the reverse of dehydration synthesis
Covalent bonds
is the term used to describe the bond type in which atoms share electrons
covalent bond example
oxygen is sharing electrons with hydrogens. Oxygen is more electronegative compared to hydrogen, resulting in an unequal sharing of electrons between oxygen and hydrogen
covalent bonds result in
polarity, when there are differences in atomic electronegativities, ex. a water molecule has polarity
Hydrogen bonds
is a weak bond interaction between the negative and positive regions of two separate molecules
hydrogen bond example
water can form hydrogen bonds w/ other water molecules or with other charged molecules.
When two of the SAME molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other this is
cohesion
when two different molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other is called
adhesion. ex. amino acid and water
the hydrogen bonds between water molecules bond can result in
surface tension
cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension allow water to demonstrate additional chemical behaviors known as
emergent properties
surface tension
is a result of increased hydrogen bonding forces between water molecules at the surface. ex. water droplet on a penny.
capillary action
result of both adhesive and cohesive properties of water. ex plants can access water from soil through this capillary action ability through the roots.
monomers are
chemical subunits used to create polymers
polymers is a
macromolecule made of may monomers
example a dehydration synthesis creates carbohydrates
carbohydrate monomers have hydroxides (OH) and hydrogen atoms (H) attached. One monomer will lose an entire hydroxide while the other monomer will only lose the hydrogen form of a hydroxide. A covalent bond will form where the hydroxide and hydrogen atom will be removed. The hydroxide (OH) and hydrogen (H) join forming a water molecule
hydrolysis crates cleave covalent bonds
is the opposite of dehydration synthesis. polymer are hydrolysis (broken down) into monomers during hydrolysis reaction. Covalent bonds between monomers are cleaved (broken) during hydrolysis reaction. A water molecule is hydrolyzed into subcomponents is added to a different monomer.
another example of dehydration synthesis is that they create proteins
-protein monomers are called amino acids. each amino acids has an amino group (NH2) terminus and a carboxyl group (COOH) -a hydroxide (OH) is lost from the carboxyl group of one amino acid and a hydrogen atom (H) is lost from the amino group of another amino acid. -a covalent bond will form between the monomers in the location where the hydroxide and hydrogen atom were removed. -the hydroxide (OH) and hydrogen atom (H) will join forming a water molecule (H2O)
proteins undergo hydrolysis reactions
-covalent bonds between amino acids can be broken -a water molecule is broken and each sub component of water (H&OH) will be bonded to different amino acids. -result is separate amino acid monomers.
covalent bonds are used to
connect monomers together
dehydration synthesis reaction
to create biological macromolecules and water is an additional product
hydrolysis reaction
use water to break down biological macromolecules
what is the R group in an amino acid? How does it affect the functional properties of the amino acid
amino acid differ in R group, the atoms attached to the central carbon. The R group can be hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or ionic.
describe how the unique chemical and physical properties of water influence the life on earth
The properties of a compound depend on the chemical bonds that hold its atoms together. Most ionic compound will be a solid at room temperature, have extremely high melting and boiling points, The rigid crystal network also makes them hard, brittle, and poor conductors of electricity; No moving electrical charges means no current will flow. They often dissolve easily in water, separating into positive ions and negative ions. The separated ions can move freely, so solutions of ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity. Covalent compounds have almost the exact opposite properties of ionic compounds. Since the atoms are organized as individual molecules, melting or boiling a covalent compound does not require breaking chemical bonds. Therefore, covalent compounds often melt and boil at lower temperatures than ionic compounds. Unlike ionic compounds, molecules stay together when dissolved in water, which means covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity. Covalent bonds do not always form small individual molecules; Bonds can make the same element look different.
list the key differences between DNA and RNA and and between the purines and pyrimidines
DNA uses deoxyribose and RNA uses Ribose as their Nitrogenous bases. DNA consists of ACGT, while RNA is used on ACGU. DNA is used in the first step; it can be used for DNA replication and transcription. And RNA is used in translation which is translated onto aminoacids, and proteins later. DNA makes two strands, while RNA makes one strand PURINES: are LARGER because they have a TWO ring structure are adenine and guanine PYRIMIDINES: only have ONE ring and are Cytosine & Thymone
primary structure of proteins
determined by the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent bonds, peptide bonds -established by covalent bonds amino acid monomers are joined forming polypeptide chains
secondary structure of protein
tertiary structure of protein
quanternary structure of protein
arises from the interactions between multiple polypeptide units
what factors in the environment surrounding a protein can cause it to denature?
-increase in temperature can cause rapid molecular movements and this can break hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions -alterations in the concentration of H+ (pH) in the solution of the exposed carboxyl and amino groups. this can disrupt the patterns of ionic attractions and repulsions -high concentration of polar substances such as urea can disrupt the hydrogen bonding that is critical to protein structure -nonpolar substances may also denature a protein in cases when hydrophobic groups are essential for maintaining the protein's structure
anabolic reactions
link simple molecules to form more complex molecules. require a small input of energy because strong bonds within the smaller molecules must be broken down to form the more complex molecules. EX: sucrose requires the breaking of strong O-H bonds in glucose and fructose.
catabolic reactions
break down complex molecules into simplistic ones and release the energy that was used to make the complex molecules. EX: when sucrose is hydrolyzed, energy is released by the formation of more stable (lower energy) bonds within the monosaccharides.
covalent bonds are very
strong and takes a lot of energy to break them.
ionic bond
A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
unique chemical and physical properties of water influence on earth
Water is often nicknamed the "universal solvent" as it can dissolve other substance. Those which dissolve well are hydrophilic (eg. salts, sugars, acids), where as those which do not are called hydrophobic (eg. fats, oils). Water has a high specific heat (the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram 1 degree Celsius) and a high heat of vaporization (the energy needed to turn a liquid into a gas) due to the many hydrogen bonds and then breaking the hydrogen bonds. The high specific eat allows water to keep the Earth's climate moderate, protecting us from any huge changes in temperature. The high heat of vaporization is important in humans when they sweat. The change from a liquid to a gas is what creates the cooling sensation. A high surface tension exists with water. Due to cohesion, water molecules have hydrogen bonds which attract to one another. This is important in transpiration, as the water molecules stick to each other as they move up a tree.
hydroxyl group properties and general features
polar, hydrophilic, characterized by presence of H&O simple structure
sulfhydrol group properties
polar, characterized by presence of S, simple branched structure
methyl group properties
nonpolar, characterized by presence of H and C, simple structure
carbonyl group properties
polar, bound to 2 organic side groups, double bond to oxygen increases of polarity
carboxyl group properties
charged, ionized to released carboxyl groups can release H+ ions into a solution, they are considered acidic, characterized by central C bound to O and OH
amino group properites
charged, accepts H+ or form NH3+ since amino groups can remove H+ from solution, they are considered basic, branched structure
phosphate group properties
charged ionizes to release H+. Since phosphate groups can release H+ into solution, they are considered acidic, characterized by presence of P and has a complex structure
carbs
store energy, provide fuel, and build structure in body, main source of energy, structure of plant cell wall.
nucleic acids
stores and transfers energy
lipids
insulators and stores fat and energy
protein
provide structural support, transport, enzymes, movement, defense
to determine polarity
if the R group at the end has an oxygen, sulfer, or nitrogen
what type of bond joins carbohydrates together to form a polymer, like the polysaccharide cellulose
glycosidic linkage
what type of bond joins amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain
peptide bonds
how many fatty acid chains are attached to a molecule of glycerol to make a triglyceride
3
fatty acid tails of a phospholipid is
nonpolar
what part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic
the fatty acid tails
if a fatty acid chain has a c=c
it is unsaturated because of the c=c double bonds
would a saturated or a nonsaturated fatty acid chain be liquid at room temperature?
unsaturated because of the double bonds chain to be bent
in what level of protein structure can you expect to find hydrogen bonding between R groups
3rd