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Heredity
This is the passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another. (nature)
Nurture
Enviormental factors such as your family life, social gorup, culture, etc.
Evolutionary approach to pscyhology
Uses Darwin’s Theory of Evolution as a basis for the approach gleans more towards the nature side of the nature vs. nurture debate. Darwin wasn’t a pscyhologist, but peopel took his ideas and ran with it.
Charles Darwin
Focused on how hereditary and enviorment impacted an indivdual. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution which stated that evolution happens by natural selection.
Eugenics
People used Darwins ideas to support this. This is the belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding for desirable traits and discouraging reproduction amoung those with traits considered undesirable.
Epigenetics
Focuses on how the enviornment and a persons behaivor impacts a persons genes and how they work.
What is the significance of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart?
Examines the similaries and differences between identical twins who were seperated at birth. t provided strong evidence that genetic factors play a major role in shaping many aspects of human personality, interests, and behaviors, even when identical twins are raised in completely different environments, suggesting a substantial genetic influence on various traits beyond environmental impact.
Why is the Colardo Adoption Project significant?
is significant because it is one of the longest-running studies on nature versus nurture. It examines the influence of genetics and environment on traits like intelligence, personality, and behavior by studying adopted children, their biological parents, and their adoptive families. The project has shown that:
Genetic factors play a strong role in traits like intelligence.
Environmental influences have a greater impact on behavior and personality during early childhood but diminish over time as genetic factors become more pronounced.
This research provides critical evidence for the interaction between heredity and environment in human development.
Plasticity
Refers to the brains ability to change and adapt as a result of experiences. invovles the strenghtening or weakning of neural connections
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Made of up of the brain and spinal cord. This system sends out orders to the brain and body
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Consists of nerves. These nerves branch off from the brain and and spine. Connects the CNS to all of the bodys organs and muscles.
What types of nerves does the nervous sytem used to deliver information?
Afferent nuerons and Efferent Nuerons
-Afferent nuerons are also known as sensory nuerons
Efferent nuerons are also known as motor nuerons
Where do afferent nuerons send signals to?
They send signals from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system. (afferent approaches the brain)
Where do efferent nuerons send signals to?
From the central nervous sytem to the peripheral nervous system. (efferent exits the brain)
Somatic nervous sytem
Also known as the skeletal nervous system, includes your five senses and skeletal muscle movements. These movements happen consciously and voluntarily.
Autonomic nervous system
Controls involuntary activities, this is what makes sure your heart keeps beating, stomach keeps digesting, and you keep breathing.
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
The sympathetic divison and the parasympatehetic divison.
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
Mobilizes your body and gets it ready for action, this makes your heart beat faster, your eyes dilate, and increases your breathing. (triggers ur fight or flight)
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
relaxes the body, slows your heart rate, increases your digestion, and helps you focus on saving and storing energy. (commonly referred to as the rest and digest system)
What are glial cells and what do they do?
they provide structure, insulation, and communication, and waste transporation. They form the basis of the nervous sytem. They are the building blocks of all behaivoral and mental processes. They are the most common cells in the nervous system. THEY DONT PROCESS INFORMATION
Nuerons
Basic functional unit of the nervous system. Nuerons communicate with each other by using electrochemical signals to send information throughout the nervous system.
Reflex arch
Nerve pathaway that allows the body to respond to stimulus without thinking. It involves sensory nuerons, motor nuerons, and internuerons.
What does a nueron need in order to send a message?
Enough stimulation and action potential.
Action potential
When a nueron fires and sends an impulse down the axon. In order for this to happen, you have to have postively and negatively charged ions. Your cell membrane seperates the ions and creates an enviorment on either side of the barrier that is overall positive or negative. This is waht gives your nuerons potential.
Resting potential
Resting potential is the electrical charge difference across a neuron’s membrane when the neuron is not actively sending a signal. It is typically around -70 mV and is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and leakage of potassium ions. This charge difference makes the neuron ready to fire when stimulated.
What has to happen to trigger action potential?
To trigger an action potential, a nueron must depolorize, which happens when an outside stimulus is strong enough to meet the threshold that causes depoloriation to occur and the nueron that fires an action potential.If the stimulus doesn’t meet the treshold, there is no firing and the nueron will return to it’s resting state.
What are the steps of an action potential?
Resting Potential: Real – The neuron is chill at -70 mV, waiting to slay.
Depolarization: Divas – Sodium struts in and spices things up.
Threshold: Rock – When it reaches -55 mV, the neuron says, "Let’s GO!"
Rising Phase: Hot – Sodium floods in, and the neuron is living its best positive life (+30 mV).
Repolarization: Pink – Potassium exits, restoring the neuron’s chill vibes.
Hyperpolarization: Rhinestones – The neuron goes extra negative (like post-drama exhaustion).
Return to Resting State: Back to slay mode, ready for the next action potential.
refractory period
time period where the cell can’t fire, another action potential or can only fire if the stimulus is exceptionally strong. It ensures that action potentials travel in one direction and allows the neuron to reset.
Absolute refractory period: No new action potential can occur because sodium channels are inactivated.
Relative refractory period: A stronger-than-normal stimulus is needed to trigger an action potential because the neuron is hyperpolarized.
This period prevents overlapping signals and ensures proper communication between neurons.
Synapse
is the tiny gap between two neurons where communication occurs. It’s the site where the axon terminal of one neuron connects with the dendrite or cell body of another neuron or a target cell (e.g., muscle)() allow neurons to transmit signals and regulate complex processes like learning, memory, and reflexes.
What is a chemical synapse?
Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron, cross the synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
What is an electrical synapse?
these are for messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately.
Synaptic gap
Narrow space between two nuerons. Specifically the presynaptic terminal of one nueron and the post synpatic terminal of another nueron.
Presynamptic terminal
Is the axon terminal of the nueron which converts the electrical signal to a chemical one and sends the nuerotransmitters into the synaptic gap.
Postsynaptic gap
While the postsynamptic terminal is where the nuerotransmitters are accepted in the dendrite of the receiving nueron.
what are some key nuerotransmitters?
A: Acetylcholine – Action, memory (deficit = Alzheimer’s).
D: Dopamine – Drama of rewards (excess = schizophrenia; deficit = Parkinson’s).
S: Serotonin – Sweet sleep and mood (deficit = depression).
G: GABA – Gossip blocker (helps with sleep, movement, and slows down your nervous system) (deficit = anxiety, seizures).
G: Glutamate – Gossip enhancer(helps with long term memory and learning) (excess = migraines, seizures).
Reuptake
The process of taking excess nuerotransmitters left in the synaptic gap.
Excitatory nuerotransmitters
will increase the liklihood that a nueron will fire an action potential, through the depolorization process in the post-synaptic nueron.
inhibitory nueron
decrease the likehood that a nueron will fire an action potential. This leads to hyperpolirzation to occur which is when the nueron becomes more negative, moving the nueron farther away from its threshold or intensity levels needed for an action potential.
Ephierene (Adrenaline)
Helps with the body’s responses to high emotional situations, it expands air passages in the lungs, redistributes blood to muscles, and is involved in the body’s fight or flight response.
Noriepheriene
Increases your blood pressure, heart rate, alertness, and helps with the body’s fight or flight response
Leptin (btw this is a hormone)
Helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger. It signals to the brain that the body has enough stored fat, reducing a persons appetite.
Ghrelin (also a hormone)
Also known as the hunger hormone, signals to the brain that we are hungry, and also helps promote the release of growth hormone.
Melatonin (hormone to)
produced by the pineal gland in the brain and regulates sleep-wake cycles, also known as circadium rythms. Melatonin is released and helps promote sleep and is typically more prevelant in the evening is response to darkness.
Oxytocin (a hormone to)
Which is produced by the hypothalamus and released in the pituitary gland. this hormone is also known as the love hormone because it promotes feelings of affection and emotional bonding.
Endorcine system
Slower moving, sends hormones throughout the bodies blood to target large areas of the body all to help regulate biological processes. This is different from the nervous system, which uses nuerons to quickly send and deliver messages to localized areas of the body.
Agonist drugs
increase the effectiveness of a nuerotransmitter
Antagonist drugs
decrease the effectiveness of a nuerotransmitter
How do agnosists work?
They bind to the receptors in the synapse that are for nuerotransmitters. These substances increase the effectiveness of the neuerotransmitter by mimicking them, and increasing the production of the nuerotransmitter, or by blocking the reuptake that would usually absorb extra nuerotransmitters, thus making them more available in the synapse. (examples include Prozac, which delays reuptake of seratonin, and xanax, which increases GABA) opiods are agnoists to.
How do antagonist drugs work?
They decrease the effectiveness of a nuerotransmitter and work in multiple ways. They either block the nuerotransmitters from being released from the presynaptic axon terminal, or they connect to the postsynaptic receptors and block the intended nuerotransmitters from binding. (ex. .schitophrenic medication, which blocks dopamine receptors),alcohol, which blocks glutamte release)
Stimulants
Generally excite and promote nueral activity. These drugs give energy, reduce people’s appeitite, and cause them to become irritable. (ex, caffiene and crack)
Depressants
Are drugs that reduce neural activity in an individual, these drugs cause drowsiness, muscle relaxation, lowered breathing, and if abused, possibly death. (examples, alcholol and sleeping pills)
Hallucinogens
Includes peyote, and LSD. These drugs cause an indivdual to sense things that aren’t actually there. They can also reduce an indivduals motivation and can lead to an indivdual to panic.
Opiods
Function as a depressant, but have their own category due to their addictive nature. These give an indivudal pain relief (ex. morphine, oxycodeine)
Hindbrain
Region of the brain-located at the bottom of the brain
Midbrain
Located at the center of the brain, above the center of thebase of the brain
forebrain
top of the brain
What are the structures in the hindbrain?
-spinal cord-connects the brain to the rest of your body
-brain stem-includes medulla, pons, and midbrain. If this is damaged it will likely result in death as it controls automomic functions.
-medulla-takes care of heart and repritory rate regulation and other autonomic functions
pons-bridge between different areas of the nervous system. connects the medulla with the cerebellum and helps to coordinate movement. Also helps with sleep and dreams
reticular activating system-this is a network of nerve cells bodies and fibers within the brain stem. This system is involved in the regulation of arousal, alertness, and sleep-wake cycles. Also helps stimulate other brain strcutures.
Cerebellum-helps with coordinating VOLUNTARY movement, posture, balance, refining motor skills, and role in cognitive functions. (somtimes referenced as the little brain)
Midbrain
Helps with procesing visual and auditory information, motor control, intergreating sensory and motor pathaways.
What are the structures of the forebrain?
Cerebrum is in here-largest part of the brain, and is resposible for complex thoughts. We can divide the cerebrum into two hemispheres- the left and right.
These can also be divided into 4 different lobes
What is the cebrebral cortex made out of?
Grey matter and white matter (nerve cells)
Corpus Collosum
A thick band of nerve fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres this is what allows your hemispheres to communicate with each other.
Frontal lobe
Located just behind your forehead. This lobe deals with higher level thinking, and is seperated into two important parts.
1st part)Prefrontal cortex-deals with foresight, judgements, speech, and complex thoughts
2nd part)motor cortex-deals with movement, and is in the back of the frontal lobe. The left motor cortex controls movement on the right side of the body while the right motor cortex controls movement on the left side of the body.
Broca’s area
found only in the left hemisphere in the front of the motor cortex. This area controls muscles involved in speech and language production.
Paul Broca
identified broca’s area
Broca’s aphasia
loss of ability to produce language. They can still understand speech and language though.
Parietal lobe
Located in the upper part of the brain behind the frontal lobe. The main function of this lobe is to receive sensory information.
somatosensory cortex
part of the parietal lobe. paralell to and directly behind the motor cortex. This is responsible for processing touch, pressure, temperature, and body posistion.
Temporal lobe
Below parietal lobe. Located right above the ear. The temporal lobe is involved in proccessing auditory and linguistic information. It also recognies faces and assists with memory. Located within the temporal lobe is the hippocampus-helps us learn and form memories-hippocampus is NOT WHERE MEMORIES ARE STORED THO
Amygdala
Located at the end of the arms of the hippocampus. It’s where emotional reactions come from.
Auditory Cortex
Located in the surperior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe. This is what processes different sounds you hear and allows you to recognize things like music and speech.
Wernicke’s area
Typically located in the left temporal lobe, this area is responsible for creating meaningful speech. Usually involved with language understanding too.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Loss of ability to produce meaningful speech
Occiputal lobe
repsonsible for processing visual information. Contains primary visual cortex. helps use recognize objects, understand spatial relationships, and perceiving depth and movement
Primary visual cortex
Receives input from the eyes.
Thalamus
located deep within the brain, just above the brain stem. The thalamus receives sensory information from your sensory organs, for everything except sense of smell. The thalamus relays important information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for processing.
Limbic system
Made up of many parts of the brain-responsible for learning, emotion, memory, and basic drives.
Some parts of the limbic system
Amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Helps keep the body balanced, and allows you to have homeostasis, this is also what controls your drives such as thirst, hunger, temperature, and sex. Also works with the pituitary gland to regulate and control your hormones.
Pituitary gland
Often referenced as the master gland because it produces and releases hormones that regulate many bodily functions and controsl other endorcine glands throughout the body.
Brain laterilization
Differing of functions of the left and right hemispheres
Hemispheric specialization (examples)
Left hemisphere is better with words and letters and interpreting language
Right hemisphere is better at recognizing spacial concepts, facial recognition, and discerning direction
Phineas Gage
Railroad worker who was injured when a tampening rod went through his skull. He survived, but his personality changed (he was easygoing nice but then became irritable and impsulive) leading to greater understanding of the brain regions involved in personality, mainly the frontal lobe. (The rod had severed his limbic system)
Split brain patients
This is a procedure that cuts the corpus callosum, which connects the right and left hemisphere of the brain. This is done to help treat people with severe epilepsy. Patients who go through this procedure don’t usually notice any changes.
What do cortex specialization tests allow for?
To understand how different areas of the cerebral cortex are specialized for specific functions.
What would researchers noticed with split brain patients?
If they saw a word they could understand it and say it just fine if it was shown on their right visual field but if its shown on the left they claim they never saw the word. But they could draw the word with their left hand.
Lesion studies
Where doctors and researchers will destroy specific brain parts to gain insight into different functions of the brain.
Autopsy
An examination of an individuals body who has died to discover the cause of death.
Nueroplasticity
Brains ability to repair itself and make new nueral pathaways
EEG (electroencephalogram
Uses electrodes that are placed on an indivduals scalp to allow researchers to record electrical signals from nueral firing. Allows researchers to measure frequency and amplitude of waves to.
FMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI))
is a noninvasive brain imaging technique that measures brain activity by tracking changes in blood flow and : Shows metabolic changes. Shows a very detailed picture.
Conscious
consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our enviorment.
Are you conscious when asleep
Yes-this is called sleep (brains are still active but obviously not as perceptive as wakefullness)
Wakefullness
the type of consciousness that exists when we are awake.
Cognitive neuroscience
How brain activity is linked with cognition.
Circadium Rythm
Biological clock-a 24 hour cycle-it involves changing your blood pressure, internal temperature, hormones, and regualting your sleep-wake cycle
Delta waves
Speed (Hz) 1-4. produced in deep sleep
Theta Waves
4-8 hZ. Produced when someone is drowsy.
Alpha Waves
Experienced when someone is relaxed. 8-12 Hz.
Beta waves
Produced when the brain is focused. 12-30 Hz.
NREM Stage 1 (for reference NREM stands for non-REM)
Very light type of sleep. Lasts about 5-10 minutes. Here your body will start to relax and your mind will slow. Alpha waves are the most common waves during this stage.
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