AP Psychology - Vocabulary 14

learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A ______ _______ is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A ______ _________ is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: _____ _________ is not punishment)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance for extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a _________ ___ of it

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

adaptive significance

how a behavior influences an organism's chances of survival and reproduction in its natural environment

fixed action pattern

an unlearned response automatically triggered by a particular stimulus

anticipatory nausea and vomiting

cancer patients may develop nausea and vomit anywhere from minutes to hours before a treatment session

chaining

used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response

instinctive drift

the tendency for a conditioned response to drift back toward instinctive behavior

preparedness

through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed (prewired) to learn some associations more easily than others

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced