SOWK2100: Final Exam

What occurred between 1990 & 2015?

Inequality rising sharply; income growth concentrated in the top 1% and 0.01%.

Why has OW and ODSP benefits declined in real value?

The benefits have not increased consistent with inflation.

What is a con of universal healthcare (in the Canadian system)?

Canadian universal healthcare hides gaps; uncovered medications/prescriptions, dental care, psychotherapy, etc.

What are a few ways in which poverty is a major health determinant?

Access to preventative care, safe/stable housing, access to nutritious food, etc.

This disproportionately impacts Indigenous communities who struggle to

What is “Bush wealth”?

Recognizes how wealth looks different in/for Indigenous communities. Focus on community, land stewardship, and intergenerational wellbeing,

What is “real value”?

(Social benefits) not matching inflation — may have increased, but not consistent with inflation

What is financialization?

The increasing domination of financial markets and institutions in the economy. Eg. deregulation and maximizing profits.

What is globalization?

Cross-border flow of goods, services, investment, etc. making counties, businesses, and individuals more globally linked.

What does the “mirage of universality” mean in the Canadian healthcare context?

Refers to how the idea of so-called ‘universality’ in health care creates a misleading perception of coverage. In reality, there are lots of gaps, however, ‘universality’ creates an image or idea that is not realistic. 

What is “Bush wealth”?

• Describes how wealth looks different in Indigenous communities.

• Draws on different measures of ‘wealths’/wellbeing in Indigenous communities.

• Not based in Western ideals of monetary wealth.

Provide two examples of how poverty intersects with other determinants (e.g., housing, food security).

Housing: 

• Poverty restricts choice–people living in poverty often have few ‘options’ (if any) of where they live

  • These neighbourhoods are often stigmatized, labelled unsafe, and associated with crime and substance use

• ‘Safe’ housing–whether it be physical or cultural–is a often more expensive and requires references and credit checks

  • This creates a commodification of safety and treats it as something extra/a luxury

Food insecurity: 

• Again, poverty restricts choice–fresh produce, culturally-perferred foods, and higher-protein options overwhelmingly cost more compared to cheaper, calorie-dense, nutrient-poor, more processed options

• Poverty can also restrict one’s ability to buy in bulk (which is often more affordable) and meal prep or to cook at all

Why does income equality continue to rise despite economic growth?

Extreme concentration of income among the 1% and 0.01%

Four driving factors:

1. The rise finance and the super rich

• Concentration of wealth in business and real estate

2. Globalization and expansion of non-standard work

3. Corporate financialization and “winner take all” markets

• Financially driven decision making → more precarious and contract work

4. Deregulation

• Wealth consolidation and concentration in the top 0.1% and 0.01%

What metrics can be used to compare welfare systems?

1. Financial resources

2. Authority

3. Organization

4. Information

5. Scope

Canada relies on what welfare eligibility/delivery methods?

Targeted, means-tested, self-reliance narrative.

Nordic countries rely on what welfare eligibility/delivery methods?

Universalism.

The Baltic relies on what welfare eligibility/delivery methods?

Post-Soviet skepticism

What is welfare chauvinism?

The prioritization of of ‘natives’ over migrants for welfare access. Driven by austerity, labour precocity, nationalism, and cultural tensions. Examples: Danish integration benefit; UK residency requirements.

Explain Financial Recourses as one of Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare systems.

• Levels/patterns of public expenditure (where & how money is spent)

  • % of GDP dedicated to public transfers, etc. 

• Example: Nordic countries spend heavily on universal transfers, while anglo-saxon nations rely on tax credits and means-tested aid

Explain Authority as one of Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare systems.

• Law and conditionality in welfare policy

  • Mandatory vs. voluntary participation, conditional benefits, regulatory control

• Example: Focus on conditional benefits (linking benefits to work/training) in the UK, USA, and Germany 

Explain Organization as one of Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare systems.

• Who delivers the service(s)?

  • Is it centralized or decentralized?

  • Public or private/contracted providers?

Explain Information as one of Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare systems.

• Discourses of welfare systems and policy

• Consider: stigma, public communication, etc.

Explain Scope as one of Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare systems.

• Who benefits? Who does the welfare policy operate for?

• Consider distribution and social reach: class (employees vs employers), gender (male bread winner vs dual earner system), race/ethnicity/citizenship (who qualifies)

• Welfare can reproduce or reduce inequality depending on eligibility, design and cultural assumptions

What does Canada’s welfare system look like according to Dodd’s five metrics?

Financial  Recourses	Moderate-Low Spending Universal & Targeted Programs Reliant On Tax Benefits
Authority	Conditional (Work History) Fragmented Authority Emphasis On Self Sufficiency
Organisation	Decentralized: Fed→prov Reliant On Non-Profits
Information	Self-Reliance Narratives ‘helping The Deserving Poor’ High Stigma
Scope	Conditional On Employment Excludes Migrants, Irregular Workers, And Indigenous

Explain what “scope” means within Dodd’s five metrics for comparing welfare states.

Scope defines who benefits from a certain welfare policy. Who is included and who is not?

Define “welfare Chauvinism” and provide one example.

The prioritization of ‘native’ people over ‘immigrants’ in the access of welfare

Driven by nationalism and cultural tensions

E.g. residency requirements to receive benefits such as Old Age Security (OAS)

If the private sector has an increased role in a welfare state, which metric of Dodd’s five metrics is impacted?

• Organisation; this is a question of policy delivery

• Financial resources is also a considering factor

What happened between 1993-1996?

Federal withdrawal from social housing = major cause of current crisis.

Is the National Housing Act enforceable on the individual-level in courts?

No.

How many people are homeless in Canada nightly?

35,000, plus hidden homelessness

What causes homelessness and hidden homelessness?

• Financialization: Shift away from housing being seen as a social good, toward financial asset for wealth generation;

• Divestment in social housing;

• Lack of affordable housing and household debt

What populations are disproportionately impacted by homelessness and hidden homelessness?

Indigenous, racialized, LGBTQ2+, and seniors.

What is the shifting of responsibility between levels of government called?

Devolution (or downloading)

What pieces of legislation make the Canadian government legally responsible to provide adequate housing?

• Article 25 Universal Declaration of Human rights (1948)

• Article 11.1 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights (1966)

What is social work’s perspective on the housing crisis and Canada’s obligation?

Profession aligns itself with a rights-based approach to housing; people deserve housing, regardless of any other factors.

Why is the National Housing Strategy Act considered limited in enforcing the right to housing?

Not enforceable at the individual level: while the National Housing Strategy Act (NHSA, 2019) recognizes the “right to housing,” this does not entrench the right to housing as an individual right that can be enforced.

What does “progressive realization” mean?

Progressive realization means governments must take active steps to continually improve policy to align with international standards.

Progressive (progress/overtime) realization (achievement)

Explain the difference between homelessness and hidden homelessness.

Homelessness refers to a lack of stable housing, often resulting in living on the street or in shelters

Hidden homelessness refers to living precariously in temporary, insecure situations, often with friends/family (couch surfing), lacking a permanent home or means to secure one – "out of sight, out of mind" / invisible in statistics

How does financialization shape housing outcomes for low-income Canadians?

Financialization has led to the commodification of housing–housing as an investment– continuously raising prices, thus pushing out low income renters

This has reduced the amount of affordable housing which an increasing number of people have come to rely on as inflation continues to surpass wage increases

Real estate investment trusts and property ownership also contributes greatly

What is queer theory?

Critiques binaries & heteronormativity; sexuality shaped by power

What is homonormativity?

Inclusion based on conformity to respectable white, middle-class and gender conforming norms

What is homonationalism?

LGBTQ inclusion used to reinforce nationalism; excludes racialized/migrant queer people

What is SOGIE?

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (SOGIE) requiring refugees to ‘prove’ their sexual and gender identity

Canada as a ‘2SLGBTQ+ friendly state’ however reinforces nation-normative language – Act of re-colonization

What is PCEPA?

PCEPA (Canada’s current legal framework): selling legal, buying illegal → reduced safety, rushed interactions, limited screening.

Queer history: 1950s-60s

Federal surveillance and purges of gay men and lesbians in government and military

Queer history: 1969

Criminal Code amended to decriminalize consensual same-sex sexual activity

Queer history: 1995

Egan v. Canada establishes sexual orientation protected ground under the Charter

Queer history: 2005

Civil Marriage Act legalises same-sex marriage accross Canada

Queer history: 2017

Bill C-16 establishes gender identity and expression as human right

What is the core principle of queer theory?

Challenge and critique the heterosexual/homosexual binary and heteronormality

Treat ‘queer’ as a verb

Define homonormativity and explain how it reinforces neoliberal values.

• Homonormativity is the use of assimilatory practices to incorporate certain 2SLGBTQIA+ identities into normative mainstream/heteronormative discourse

• It emphasizes ‘acceptable' heteronormative ideals of queer people as White, middle-class, gender conforming, monogamous, married, nuclear family-resembling people 

  • Marginalises trans, bisexuals, populations of the global majority, etc.

• Fundamentally tied to neoliberalism: personal responsibility, consumption (e.g., LGBTQ2 tourism, depoliticised activism)

  • Reinforces existing norms around whiteness, cisnormativity, middle-class values, binary gender roles, national citizenship ideals

Describe two colonial mechanisms used to regulate Indigenous sexuality.

1. The Indian Act: controlled and regulated marriage, identity, and gender roles

2. Residential schools: assimilatory practices of heterosexual norms/ reinforced binaries and punished expression of Indigenous identities

How does the PCEPA (end-demand model) create safety risks for sex workers?

Reduces safety by limiting screening and information sharing of clients, creates rushed decision making, hides work behind closed doors recusing visibility of abuse

What three systems have reshaped employment since the 1970s?

Globalization, automation, and the gig economy

What is the Standard Employment Relationship?

SER: permanent, full time work (40 hour work week)

What is precarious work?

Low wage, unstable, limited benefits; SER now minority

What has EI eligibility tightening led to?

Fewer workers qualifying

Minimum wage is tied to CPI, why is this bad? (CPI limitations)

Flawed measure: shrinkflation, outdated basket

What are potential policy ideas to combat the changing employment landscape?

Portable benefits, wider definition of employee, sectoral bargaining, basic income

Define globalization in the context of precarious employment.

Bringing in ‘cheap labour’ from other countries (“made in China”)

Define gig-economy.

Crowd sourcing work (E.g. Uber)

Define precarious employment.

Unstable, temporary/unreliable, low wage, limited benefits and legal benefit

Define portable benefits.

Follows the individual (not tied to the job position)

Define sectoral bargaining.

Sector-wide unions. E.g. all social workers (all persons in the same sector, instead of specific employer)

What historical shifts since the 1970s have contributed to the rise of precarious work?

Three primary factors leading to the rise of precarious work are the increases in globalization, advances and reliance on automation, and growing reliance on the gig economy to replace salaried employees.

How did changes to EI eligibility in the 1990s reduce access?

In the 1990s, EI eligibility required 240 hours worked in a year. The new changes increased this to 420-700 hours in a year. This led EI to cover only 40% of unemployed workers, compared to previous 80%.

Why is CPI not an ideal tool for setting minimum wage policy?

CPI is deeply flawed and is not fully accurate. It does not account for other measures of inflation (e.g., shrinkflation), can be based on outdated versions of consumer goods, does not account for substitute goods, and focuses on an urban pattern of consumption.

How could sectoral bargaining or portable benefits reduce precarity?

Increases access to benefits, creates equality across sectors (not tied to individual employers), increases bargaining power since there are more people advocating.