Psychology- Ch. 8- Cognition, language, and intelligence-Key terms

cognition

the mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge

thinking

mental activity associated with coming to a decision, reaching a solution, or forming a belief

concepts

mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics

formal concepts

the mental representations of categories that are created through rigid and logical rules or features

natural concepts

the mental representations of categories resulting from experiences in daily life

prototype

the ideal or most representative example of a natural concept

problem solving

the variety of approaches that can be used to achieve a goal

trial and error

An approach to problem solving that involves finding a solution through a series of attempts and eliminating those that do not work.

Algorithm

an approach to problem solving using a formula or set of rules that, if followed, ensures a solution

heuristics

problem-solving shortcuts that incorporate a rule of thumb, guideline, or strategy

means-ends analysis

Heuristic procedure in which the problem solver compares the current situation with the desired goal to determine the most efficient way to get from one to the other.

insight

An understanding or solution that occurs in a sudden stroke of clarity

functional fixedness

a barrier to problem solving that involves the tendency to think of objects only in terms of their common uses

decision making

the cognitive process of choosing from alternatives that might be used to reach a goal

availability heuristic

a decision-making heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples

representativeness heuristic

a decision-making heuristic in which people make judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

mistakenly believing that an event could have been predicted once the actual outcome is known (after-the-fact).

language

a system for using symbols to think and communicate

Phonemes

the basic building blocks of spoken language

Morphemes

the fundamental units that bring meaning to language

grammar

the rules associated with word and sentence structure

Semantics

the rules used to bring meaning to words and sentences

pragmatics

the appropriate use of language in different contexts

intelligence

innate ability to solve problems, adapt to the environment, and learn from experiences

general intelligence

a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability that drives capabilities in many areas, including verbal, spatial, and reasoning competencies

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions

aptitude

Capacity for learning; natural ability

achievement

aquired knowledge, or what has been learned

mental age

A score corresponding to the age level of the most-advanced items a child could answer correctly on Alfred Binet's first intelligence test

intelligence quotient (IQ)

A score from an intelligence assessment; originally based on mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.

validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure

Reliability

the ability of an assesment to provide consistent, reproducible results

standardization

occurs when test developers administer a test to a large sample and then publish the average scores for specified groups

normal curve

Depicts the frequency of values of a variable along a continuum; bell-shaped symmetrical distribution, with the highest point reflecting the average score.

culture-fair tests

intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

gifted

highly intelligent; defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Heriability

the degree to which a characteristic is related to inherited genetic factors

creativity

In problem solving, the ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways; the ability to generate original ideas.

divergent thinking

ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem

convergent thinking

conventional thinking directed toward a single correct solution