2025 AP Psychology AP Exam Review

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

accomodation (cognition)

In the context of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas (mental structures) or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences.

accomodation (vision)

In vision, the process by which the lens of the eye shifts to focus on a particular object.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, memory, and learning.

achievement motivation

the desire to excel, succeed, or accomplish challenging goals, often driven by the pursuit of competence, mastery, or recognition in specific domains or tasks.

achievement test

A test designed to assess what a person has learned or accomplished in a particular area, such as academic subjects or job-related skills.

acquisition

the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened through reinforcement

action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the neuron's membrane.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A theory of dreaming that suggests dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

active listening

a communication technique used in therapy and counseling that involves fully concentrating, understanding, responding, and empathizing with what the speaker is saying, through verbal and nonverbal cues, to facilitate deeper understanding and rapport.

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal factors, particularly in situations where one is the actor (participant) versus the observer.

acute schizophrenia

a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by sudden onset of psychotic symptoms, often accompanied by emotional turmoil, confusion, or behavioral disturbances, which may require immediate intervention and stabilization.

adaptation-level phenomenon

a cognitive bias in which individuals adapt to and become accustomed to their current level of environmental stimuli or life circumstances, thereby recalibrating their expectations and judgments over time.

addiction

A complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences.

adolescence

the transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the teenage years, marked by puberty, identity exploration, and increased autonomy.

Adulthood

The stage of life after adolescence, characterized by full development and maturity, typically defined by milestones such as career establishment and family formation.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.

aerobic exercise

physical activity that increases heart rate and oxygen consumption over an extended period, such as running, swimming, or cycling, which has been shown to improve physical health, mental well-being, and cognitive function.

agonist

A drug or chemical that enhances the activity of neurotransmitters.

agoraphobia

an anxiety disorder characterized by fear or avoidance of situations or places where escape or help may be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack or other anxiety symptoms, such as crowded spaces, public transportation, or open spaces.

Agreeableness

A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.

Alarm Stage

The initial reaction to stress, activating the fight-or-flight response.

Albert Bandura

a psychologist known for his contributions to social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy; conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated observational learning and the influence of role models on behavior.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows down the central nervous system, impairing cognitive and motor functions.

algorithm

A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem, often involving repetitive operations.

all-or-none response

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves associated with relaxation and wakefulness.

altruism

selfless behavior or actions that are motivated by concern for the well-being or welfare of others, without expecting any personal benefit or reward in return.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, language deterioration, and impaired ability to mentally manipulate visual information.

Amnesia

A significant memory loss that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting.

Amplitude

The height of a wave, which determines the loudness of a sound.

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action, common in young children.

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, leading to severe restriction of food intake, excessive exercise, and distorted body image, often resulting in significant weight loss and medical complications.

antagonist

A drug or chemical that inhibits or blocks the action of neurotransmitters.

anterograde amnesia

A type of memory impairment characterized by the inability to form new memories after a specific event or injury, while memories from before the event remain intact.

anti-social personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, lack of empathy or remorse, and impulsive or antisocial behavior, often beginning in adolescence or early adulthood.

antianxiety drugs

also known as anxiolytics or benzodiazepines, medications used to alleviate symptoms of anxiety disorders by enhancing the activity of neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which has calming effects on the central nervous system.

antidepressants

medications used to treat symptoms of depressive disorders by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain, which are implicated in mood regulation and emotional well-being.

antipsychotic drugs

also known as neuroleptics, medications used to manage symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain and reducing hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

antisocial behavior

actions that violate social norms, disregard the rights of others, and often involve aggression, deceit, or rule-breaking.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A disorder characterized by a long-term pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others.

anxiety disorders

a group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive, persistent, and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety, fear, or apprehension, often accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid heartbeat or sweating.

APA (American Psychological Association)

The leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States.

aphasia

a language disorder caused by damage to the brain, typically resulting in difficulty with language production, comprehension, or both.

approach-approach conflict

a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two desirable or attractive options, each of which has its own benefits and rewards, making the decision difficult.

approach-avoidance conflict

a type of conflict in which an individual is attracted to a goal or outcome (approach) but also experiences negative feelings or consequences associated with pursuing that goal (avoidance), leading to ambivalence and uncertainty.

aptitude test

A test designed to assess a person's potential for learning or ability to perform in a particular area, such as intelligence tests or vocational aptitude tests.

Arousal Theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal.

assimilation

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive structures or schemas.

association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

associative learning

a type of learning that involves forming associations or connections between stimuli and responses, such as classical and operant conditioning

Ataque de Nervios

A culture-bound syndrome prevalent among Latinos, characterized by uncontrollable shouting, crying, and trembling.

attachment

the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically characterized by proximity seeking, distress upon separation, and a sense of security.

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information.

attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADD/ADHD)

a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning and development, typically diagnosed in childhood and often persisting into adulthood.

attitudes

evaluations, feelings, or beliefs about people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior and responses to the social world

Attribution

The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.

attribution theory

a psychological framework that explores how individuals explain the causes of events, behaviors, and outcomes, either attributing them to internal factors (such as personality traits) or external factors (such as situational circumstances).

audition

The sense of hearing.

Auditory Cortex

The part of the brain that processes auditory information.

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness; parents expect obedience and use punishment.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness; parents set clear standards and are supportive.

autism spectrum disorders

a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction, restricted interests, repetitive behaviors, and sensory sensitivities, varying in severity and presentation.

Autobiographical Memory

A person's memory for events and issues related to oneself.

autokinetic effect

A perceptual phenomenon where a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark environment due to small eye movements.

automatic processing

The unconscious processing of information that requires minimal attention and effort, such as routine tasks or well-learned skills.

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and glandular secretion.

availability heuristic

A mental shortcut where people make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind, often leading to overestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

aversive conditioning

a behavior therapy technique that pairs an undesired behavior with an unpleasant stimulus or consequence, with the aim of reducing or eliminating the behavior through negative reinforcement or punishment.

avoidance-avoidance conflict

a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two undesirable or aversive options, each of which has its own negative consequences, making the decision challenging.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

A disorder characterized by social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.

axon

The extension of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent.

B. F. Skinner

an American psychologist and behaviorist known for his research on operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, and the development of behavior therapy techniques such as operant conditioning and token economies.

babbling stage

a developmental milestone in infancy when infants produce repetitive, nonsensical sounds as they experiment with vocalizations

barbiturates

A class of drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

basal metabolic rate

the minimum amount of energy or calories required by the body to maintain basic physiological functions (such as respiration, circulation, and cell metabolism) while at rest and in a fasting state.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, the sense of security and confidence in the world that develops during infancy through consistent and nurturing caregiving

behavior feedback effect

the phenomenon whereby changes in behavior can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that actions and movements can affect mood and subjective feelings.

behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

behavior therapy

a type of psychotherapy that focuses on modifying maladaptive behaviors and promoting adaptive ones through techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, modeling, and exposure, based on principles of learning and conditioning.

behaviorism

a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, while often disregarding internal mental processes

belief perserverance

The tendency to maintain one's beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

Big Five Factors

theory that contains five broad dimensions of personality traits openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which capture the major dimensions of individual differences in personality.

binocular cue

Depth cues that rely on information from both eyes to perceive depth and distance, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Biofeedback

A technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes such as heart rate and muscle tension by providing real-time feedback.

Biological Perspective

An approach to psychology that focuses on the physiological bases of behavior and mental processes.

Biological Preparedness

The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

biomedical therapy

the use of biological or medical interventions, such as medication, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or psychosurgery, to treat mental disorders by targeting underlying biological or neurological mechanisms.

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

bipolar disorder

formerly known as manic-depressive illness, a mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania or hypomania, which are periods of elevated mood, energy, and activity.

Bipolar I

A type of bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often with depressive episodes.

Bipolar II

A type of bipolar disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes.

blind spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small gap in the field of vision.

blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously experiencing them.

Borderline Personality Disorder

A disorder characterized by instability in mood, self-image, and behavior, often resulting in impulsive actions and unstable relationships.

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

broaden-and-build theory

a theory proposed by Barbara Fredrickson suggesting that positive emotions broaden individuals' thought-action repertoires and build psychological resources, promoting resilience, creativity, and personal growth over time.

Broca's area

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing