Physics - PAGS

PAG 1: Measurements

Use vernier calipers or micrometer to measure dimensions (e.g. wire diameter); use ruler for length; stopwatch or light gates for timing. Record multiple measurements and average to reduce random error. Estimate uncertainty from instrument resolution (e.g. ±0.01 mm for micrometer).

PAG 2: Electrical Circuits

Build circuits with power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, variable resistor. Vary voltage and record current to plot I–V graphs. Take multiple readings. Account for uncertainties in voltmeter and ammeter readings (e.g. ±0.01 V, ±0.01 A).

PAG 3: Hooke’s Law & Materials

Use clamp, spring/wire, metre ruler, micrometer, masses. Measure extension for each load using a ruler at eye level. Calculate force from weight. Measure original length and diameter. Use micrometer at multiple points for diameter. Consider ±0.5 mm ruler uncertainty.

PAG 4: Waves

Use ripple tank or stretched string, signal generator, strobe light or ruler/stopwatch. Measure wavelength (distance between peaks), frequency (from signal generator), and calculate speed. Uncertainty from ruler ±1 mm and timing ±0.2 s.

PAG 5: Dynamics

Use trolley, light gate(s), motion sensor, ramp, pulley and mass hanger. Measure acceleration from velocity-time data or using kinematic equations. Account for friction and use average of repeated trials. Timing uncertainty from light gate is minimal.

PAG 6: Circular Motion & SHM

For SHM: use mass-spring or pendulum; measure period with stopwatch for 10 swings and divide. For circular motion: use whirling bung setup and measure time for revolutions. Uncertainty mainly from human reaction time (~±0.2 s).

PAG 7: Fields

Use plotting compass or iron filings to map magnetic fields. For electric fields, use a voltage probe or voltmeter. For capacitors, use data logger to record voltage over time. Estimate uncertainty based on probe resolution (±0.1 V typical).

PAG 8: Thermal Physics

Use immersion heater, thermometer or temperature probe, insulated container, joulemeter or stopwatch/ammeter/voltmeter. Measure temperature change and electrical energy supplied. Major uncertainties: ±0.5°C thermometer, ±5% in power measurements.

PAG 9: Optics

Use ray box, lens, screen, and ruler. Measure image and object distances to calculate focal length. Perform multiple trials at different distances. Ruler uncertainty ±1 mm; parallax error possible if eye not level.

PAG 10: Nuclear Physics

Use Geiger-Müller tube, radioactive source, and data logger or counter. Measure count rate at different distances. Use shielding to reduce background radiation. Consider background subtraction and statistical uncertainty (√N in counts).

PAG 11: Capacitors

Use resistor-capacitor circuit, voltmeter or data logger. Record voltage over time while charging/discharging. Plot V-t graph to find time constant. Data logger reduces timing error. Voltage uncertainty ±0.01 V typically.

PAG 12: Astronomy & Cosmology

Use simulation software or provided data to analyse parallax shift or redshift. Plot graphs for Hubble's Law or parallax. Uncertainty in angle measurement for parallax or redshift estimation must be considered if given.

Measurements Graph

Length or Distance vs Time graph; slope = speed; curvature = acceleration

Electrical circuits Graph

Current (I) vs Voltage (V) graph; slope = resistance; linear for ohmic, curved for filament/diode

Hooke’s Law Graph

Force vs Extension; straight section obeys Hooke's law, slope = k

Young Modulus Graph

Stress vs Strain; slope = Young modulus, area under = energy per unit volume

Waves Graph

Distance vs Time; slope = wave speed (or use wavelength vs frequency)

Dynamics Graph

Velocity vs Time; slope = acceleration

Circular Motion + SHM Graph

T² vs Mass (spring) or T² vs Length (pendulum); slope gives k or g; linear if SHM

SHM Graphs

Displacement, velocity, acceleration vs time; sinusoidal curves out of phase

Capacitors (discharge) Graph

V vs t (capacitor discharge); exponential decay; ln(V) vs t gives straight line with slope –1/RC

Thermal Physics Graph

Temperature vs Time; slope = SHC when heating; flat region = latent heat transfer

Optics (lens) Graph

1/image distance vs 1/object distance (lens); slope/intercept used to find focal length

Optics Graph

Image distance vs object distance ; curved line showing image-object relationship

Nuclear Physics Graph

Count rate vs 1/d²; linear if inverse square law obeyed

Capacitors Graph

V vs t (capacitor); exponential decay; ln(V) vs t gives –1/RC

Astronomy + Cosmology Graph

Recession velocity vs distance; straight line, slope = Hubble constant