THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD & RESEARCH STRATEGIES

THEORY

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events (researched and tested)

HYPOTHESIS

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory (educated guess)

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables (needs to be measurable, manageable and clear)

REPLICATION

Main goal of research. Allows for testing of hypotheses with other populations so results can be generalized.

Descriptive Research

Describes characteristics of a population.

Correlational Research

Indicates there might be a relationship between 2 variables.

Experimentation

Shows cause and effect relationship.

Case Study

One person or a small group of people are studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Cross Sectional Research

A descriptive research method that analyzes data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal Research

A descriptive research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

Positive Correlation

Two factors increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One factor increases while another decreases and vice versa.

Correlation Coefficient

Reveals how closely 2 things vary together and thus how well either one predicts the other (direction and strength of relationship) (-1 to +1).

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Correlation Does Not Mean Causation

Indicates only a possibility of a cause-effect relationship.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate others' agreement with us.

Sigmund Freud

Studied his patients in the context of psychoanalysis.

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner

Conducted the Little Albert experiment, teaching fear of white lab rats.

Jean Piaget

Studied cognitive development in his children.

Paul Broca

Studied a man with damage to a particular area of the brain in the context of neuroscience.

Ex: Violence on TV and Aggressive Behavior

An example of a positive correlation.

Ex: Lack of Sleep and Bad Grades

Another example of a positive correlation.

Ex: Low Self-Esteem and High Levels of Depression

An example of a negative correlation.

Ex: r = -0.93

An example of a correlation coefficient indicating a strong negative correlation.

Ex: r = 0.23

An example of a correlation coefficient indicating a weak positive correlation.

Ex: r = -0.14

An example of a correlation coefficient indicating a weak negative correlation.

Ex: r = -0.45

An example of a correlation coefficient indicating a moderate negative correlation.

Intervening Variables

Factors that may explain the correlation between low self-esteem and depression.

Mnemonic Device

A technique for identifying correlation on a graph.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, such as 'If children watch violent cartoons then they will become violent themselves.'

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment, or one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that is NOT exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, ensuring each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any group.

Sampling

The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a population to participate in a study.

Between-Subjects Design

An experiment that has two or more groups of subjects each tested by a different testing factor simultaneously.

Within-Subjects Design

An experimental design where the same subjects are used in both conditions.

Single-Blind Experiment

An experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants receive the treatment.

Double-Blind Experiment

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.