AP Psychology Unit 2 Vocabulary! (Cognition)

Unit 2 Cognition Vocabulary Flashcards AP Psychology 2024-2025!

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Context-Dependent Memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place

Mood-Congruent Memory 

A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood.

State-Dependent Memory 

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same.

Testing Effect 

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered

Meta Cognition 

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

The Forgetting Curve 

a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

Encoding Failure 

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory (fail)

Proactive Interference 

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference 

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon 

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations

Repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

Misinformation Effect 

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia 

attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Constructive Memory 

a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details

Memory Consolidation 

The strengthening of the neural network that represents a memory

Imagination Inflation 

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

General Intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Multiple Intelligences 

idea that people vary in their ability levels across different domains of intellectual skill

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. also a measure of a person’s reasoning ability

Mental Age 

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

Standardization

the process of making something conform to a standard

Valid

Well-founded on evidence and corresponds accurately to the real world.

Construct Validity 

the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Reliable

a measure of whether something stays the same, i.e. is consistent.

Test-Retest Reliability 

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

Split-Half Reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Stereotype Threat 

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Stereotype Lift 

awareness of positive expectations can actually improve performance on tasks

Flynn Effect 

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

Achievement Tests

standardized assessments that measure a person's knowledge, skills, and proficiency in a particular subject

Aptitude Tests  

a tool that measures a person's ability to learn or perform tasks, and to succeed in a particular environment

Growth Mindset 

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

Fixed Mindset 

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

Episodic Memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

Semantic Memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Implicit Memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Procedural Memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

Prospective Memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-Store Model

three stage processing model of memory. 1. sensory 2. short term 3. long term

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Central Executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

Phonological Loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few seconds

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Shallow Processing

An approach to memorization that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it's printed.

Deep Processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words (little to no effort required)

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storing

the processing of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Structural Processing

remember the physical quality of the word (how the word is spelled)

Phonemic Processing

when we encode its sound (words based on the way they sound)

Semantic Processing

Words are encoded by their meaning, which allows them to be placed directly in our semantic networks.

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Categories

networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other

Hierarchies

composing/organizing information in a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

The Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Massed Practice

A self-directed behavior change technique in which the person forces himself to perform an undesired behavior (e.g., a compulsive ritual) repeatedly, which sometimes decreases the future frequency of the behavior. (CRAMMING)

Distributed Practice

Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Primacy Effect

tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows

Recency Effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Maintenance Rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.

Autobiographical Memory

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

Alzheimer's Disease

a brain disorder that gradually destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually the ability to perform daily tasks

Infantile Amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age

proactive interference

(forward acting) old memories intefere with new ones

retroactive inteference

(backward acting) new memories disrupt/interfere with old

Selective attention

the process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring other, enhancing perception of relevant information

Inattentional bias

A psychological phenomenon where an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when focusing on a specific task.

Change blindness

A failure to detect significant changes in a visual scene, often due to the limited capacity of attention.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way, influenced by expectations, experiences, and context.

Gestalt

A principle in psychology emphasizing that the whole of an experience is different from the sum of its parts, highlighting holistic perception.

Figure-ground

The organization of visual information into objects (figures) that stand out from their background (ground).

perception

selecting, organizing & interpreting sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by highest mental processing; perceiving things based on your prior experiences and knowledge.

bottom-up processing

analysis begins with sensory receptors & works up to the brains integration of sensory integration.

schema

a mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information; categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world

cocktail party effect

ability to focus one’s listening attention on a single talk among a mixture of background noises

closure

tendency to perceive an incomplete figure as whole

attention

the cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli in the environment; the mental ability to concentrate awareness on a particular piece of information while ignoring others, allowing for further processing and response to that chosen stimulus.

proximity

a Gestalt principle of perception stating that objects which are physically close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group.