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Mehmed II
Ottoman sultan known for conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
Akbar the Great
Prominent Mughal emperor recognized for religious toleration and administrative reforms.
Roxelana
Powerful wife of Suleiman, influencing Ottoman politics from the harem.
Qing Dynasty
Last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by Manchu from 1644 until 1912.
Manchu
Ethnic group from Manchuria that established the Qing Dynasty over Han Chinese.
Ottoman Empire
Islamic empire notable for military prowess and relative religious tolerance.
harem
Private space for a ruler’s wives and concubines, often influencing political affairs.
peninsulares
Spanish-born individuals residing in the Americas, at the top of colonial social hierarchy.
criollo
Descendants of Europeans born in the Americas, below peninsulares in social rank.
castas
Mixed-race hierarchical categories in Latin America, defining social status based on ancestry.
mestizos
Individuals of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in colonial Latin America.
mulattos
Individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, positioned in the colonial caste system.
zambos
Individuals of mixed indigenous and African ancestry, part of colonial social hierarchy.
Barbary pirates
North African pirates engaging in maritime raiding and slave trading activities.
queues
Mandatory braided hairstyle imposed by Qing rulers on Han Chinese as a loyalty test.
Sephardic Jew
Jewish descendants from Spain, particularly post-expulsion in 1492.
Ashkenazi Jew
Jewish individuals primarily from Central and Eastern Europe, historically referred to as German
Maratha Empire
A Hindu-led state in India that emerged from resistance against Mughal rule in the late 17th century.
Ana Nzinga
A 17th-century African queen known for her resistance against Portuguese colonial forces.
Yemelyan Pugachev
A leader of a peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great in 1774 in Russia.
Queen Nanny
A leader of the Maroons in Jamaica, recognized as a national hero for her resistance against British enslavement.
Fronde
Series of civil disturbances in France during the 1640s against government authority.
Metacom’s War
A conflict in the 1670s between Native Americans and British settlers in New England, marking a significant resistance effort.
Pugachev Rebellion
A failed peasant revolt in Russia against the nobility and government in 1774.
Pueblo Revolt
An uprising in 1680 by Indigenous peoples against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico.
Maroon wars
Conflicts in Jamaica during the 18th century between escaped enslaved people and British forces.
Commercial Revolution
Transition to a trade-based economy primarily using gold and silver.
Price Revolution
Significant increase in prices during the 16th and early 17th centuries due to inflation.
joint-stock companies
Business entities where investors share profits and risks through stock ownership.
East India Company
A British trading corporation focused on commerce in Asia.
Dutch East India Company
A successful 17th-century joint-stock company that dominated trade in spices and Southeast Asia.
triangular trade
Atlantic trading system involving three segments: Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
monopolies
Exclusive rights granted to certain merchants or companies by governments to control trade.
Santería
An Afro-Caribbean religion merging African traditions and Catholicism.
Virgin of Guadalupe
A Catholic figure representing the blending of indigenous and Spanish cultures.
viceroys
Royal representatives appointed to govern colonies in the Americas.
Oyo
A West African state involved in capturing and selling enslaved people
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