Behavioral Sciences — Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

Which of the following terms describes how existing schemata are modified to incorporate information?

A. Assimilation

B. Adaptation

C. Affirmation

D. Accommodation

D

After completing final exams, a student reports to student health complaining of paranoia, lack of appetite, and elevated heart rate. After some questioning, the student admits to having been awake for over 48 hours after having bought pills from another student in the library. Which of the following drugs has this student likely taken?

A. Phenobarbitol

B. Dextroamphetamine

C. Oxycodone

D. Lysergic acid diethlyamide

B

A student is volunteering in a hospital with a stroke center. When asked what the prevalence of stroke is among those greater than 65 years old, the student states that it is probably about 40% even through data analysis indicates that it is significantly lower. What accounts for this error?

A. Deductive reasoning

B. Representativeness heuristic

C. Base rate fallacy

D. Confirmation bias

C

Which of the following types of intelligence is NOT described by Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence?

A. Fluid intelligence

B. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

C. Visual-spatial intelligence

D. Linguistic intelligence

A

EEG waveforms during REM sleep most resemble which of the following state of consciousness?

A. Alertness

B. Slow-wave sleep

C. Stage 1 sleep

D. Meditation

A

Which of the following indicates the pattern of sleep stages during a complete sleep cycle early in the night?

A. 1-2-3-4-1-2-REM

B. 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM

C. 4-3-2-1-2-3-REM

D. 4-3-2-4-3-1-REM

B

Which of the following best explains a student's ability to sit on the couch and watch reruns of a favorite TV show while studying for a chemistry exam?

A. Selective attention

B. Divided attention

C. Shadowing

D. Parallel processing

B

Which theory of dreaming states that dreams and thoughts during wakeful periods use the same stream-of-consciousness system?

A. Activation-synthesis theory

B. Problem solving theory

C. Cognitive process theory

D. Neurocognitive theory

C

A 19-year-old college student with bloodshot eyes is picked up by campus police after shoplifting a large bag of corn chips and a dozen ice cream sandwiches. During questioning, the student cannot stop giggling and repeatedly asks for water, complaining of dryness in the mouth. What is the psychoactive substance in the drug this students has most likely recently taken?

A. Alprazolam

B. 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine

C. Diacetylmorphine

D. Tetrahydrocannabinol

D

Language consists of multiple components. Which of the following involves the order in which words are put together?

A. Phonology

B. Semantics

C. Syntax

D. Pragmatics

C

A child speaks in sentences of at least 3 words, but makes grammatical errors including misuse of the past tense. How old is this child likely to be?

A. 14 months

B. 22 months

C. 30 months

D. 5 years

C

Which language theory states that language development occurs due to preferential reinforcement of certain phenomena by parents and caregivers?

A. Nativist theory

B. Learning theory

C. Social interactionist theory

D. Neurocognitive theory

B

A stroke patient comprehends speech but cannot properly move the mouth to form words. Which of the following brain areas is likely affected?

A. Broca's area

B. Wernicke's area

C. Arcuate fasciculus

D. Superior temporal gyrus

A

A person sits at a terminal of the airport and works on a challenging sudoku puzzle. The individual ignores most of the intercom announcements but, after an announcement indicates that boarding the flight has begun, quickly gets in line. Which of the following best explains the person's rapid response for boarding?

A. Cocktail party phenomenon

B. Divided attention

C. Automatic processing

D. Effortful processing

A

During which of the following stages does dreaming occur?

I. Stage 3

II. Stage 4

III. REM

A. I only

B. II only

C. III only

D. I, II, and III

D

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

Both learning and memory rely on changes in _____ and ________, the extent of which depends on ________, which decreases as we age.

brain chemistry; physiology; neuroplasticity

Long term potentiation

the strengthening of neuronal connections resulting from increased neurotransmitter release and the adding of receptor sites

Long term potentiation is responsible for

the conversion of short-term to long-term memory

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Circular reactions

Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

When does object permanence end?

Sensorimotor stage

Preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

What does the preoperational stage focus on?

symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration

Symbolic thinking

ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Centration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

Concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

What does the concrete operational stage focus on?

understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects

Formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and problem solving

Problem solving

process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways; requires identification and understanding of the problem, generation and testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results

Mental set

pattern of approach for a given problem

Functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Types of problem solving

trial-and-error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

conclusions from general rules

Inductive reasoning

deriving generalizations from evidence

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).

Biases

opinions or beliefs that affect a person's ability to make fair, unclouded judgments or decisions

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Variations in intellectual ability can be attributed to

combinations of environment, education, and genetics

States of consciousness

alertness, sleep, dreaming, altered states of consciousness

Alertness

state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information

Beta waves

smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Stage 1

dominated by theta waves

Stage 2

slightly deeper sleep and includes theta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes

Stages 3 and 4

deep sleep or slow wave sleep. Shortens as night progresses, delta waves.

Delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

most sleep-wake disorders occur during

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep

Stages 1 through 4 of sleep; contains ever-slowing brain waves as one gets deeper into sleep.

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream

REM sleep is sometimes called

paradoxical sleep

During paradoxical sleep, the mind appears _____________ on an EEG, but the person is _________

close to awake; asleep

Eye movements, body paralysis, and dreaming occur during which stage of sleep?

REM sleep

Sleep cycle

a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep

Normal sleep cycle for adults

Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM

REM becomes more frequent

toward the morning

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

What triggers the release of melatonin from the pineal gland?

changes in light in the evening

Cortisol levels increase at what time?

early morning

What hormone helps promote wakefulness?

cortisol

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Dyssomnia

a sleep disorder in which one has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep

Examples of dyssomnias

insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation

Parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

Somnambulism

sleepwalking

Consciousness-altering drugs

depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens

Depressants

depress sympathetic NS, decrease brain activity, decrease glucose metabolism; promote or mimic GABA activity

Examples of depressants

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

Alcohol

depressant that stimulates GABA and dopamine, suppresses REM

Barbiturates

sedatives, sleep aids, depress sympathetic NS

Benzodiazepines

stimulate GABA, anti-anxiety

Opiates

mimic endorphins to relieve pain, death by respiratory depression

Examples of opiates

heroin, morphine, opiu

Stimulants

increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at synaptic cleft

Examples of stimulants

caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and nicotine

Caffiene and nicotine

- stimulants that trigger the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine which diminish appetite, boost alertness and mental efficiency

-stimulates CNS to release dopamine and opiates

-also affects ACh

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria; releases dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

Ecstasy

stimulant and hallucinogen that releases dopamine and serotonin

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; methamphetamine is an example

Hallucinogens

distortion of reality, smpathetic response, make you see things, can be either stimulating or depressing, no dependence

Examples of hallucinogens

LSD, mushrooms, mescaline

Marijuana

hallucinogen; THC stimulates cannabinoid receptors, amplifies sensory perception

LSD

((hallucinogen))

affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-)/ out-of-body

affects serotonin

Drug addiction is mediated by

the mesolimbic pathway

Mesolimbic pathway

nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, ventral tegmental area

Main neurotransmitter in mesolimbic pathway

dopamine

Selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention

Divided attention

uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time

Language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning; consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics

Phonology

the actual sound of speech

Morphology

the building blocks of words, such as rules of pluralization, past tense, and so forth

Semantics

the meaning of words

Syntax

the rules dictating word order

Pragmatics

changes in language delivery depending on context

Theories of language

behaviorist, nativist, interactionist