Myers' Psychology Modules 1.1-1.6

Nature-Nurture Issue

The long-standing issues over whether our biology (nature) or our environment (nurture) makes us who we are.

Natural selection

The concept that nature will “select” organisms with beneficial traits to pass on their genes, while organisms with hurtful traits will die and their genes will be lost.

Mutation

Random errors in gene replication that lead to changes in an organism’s traits.

Genome

The common set of genes that exists in all spiecies.

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Genes

Segments of DNA that determines a person’s characteristics. There are the “biochemical units of heredity.”

Polygenetic traits

Traits that are influences by many small genes, as opposed to one large gene.

Identical twin studies

Research examining the similarities and differences between identical twins to understand the impact of genetics on behavior and traits.

Fraternal twin studies

Research comparing fraternal twins to study the influence of genetics and environment on behavior and traits.

Bogota Brothers

Two sets of identical twins were swapped at birth. This case study highlights the environmental and genetic influences on personality and behavior, as the twins were raised in different households, yet the biologically identical twins were more alike than their supposed fraternal twin.

Interaction

How genes and heredity interplay with environmental factors and experiences.

Epigenetics

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression without DNA change or mutation.

Epigenetic marks

Molecular tags attached to DNA that instructs a cell to turn the gene on (expressed) or off (not expressed).These marks can be influenced by environmental factors and experiences, affecting gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves that extend away from and back to the CNS.re

reflexes

Automatic response to a sensory stimulus. The responses are involuntary and often used to protect the body from harm.

Sensory neurons

Nerves cells that carry inputs from the body to the CNS.

Motor neurons

Nerve cells that carry outputs from the CNS to the body.

Interneurons

Nerves cells that help sensory and motor neurons exchange signals.

Somatic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls all involuntary actions and functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body’s emergency fight-or-flight response. It boosts energy usages, raises production of adrenaline, stops digestion, and dilates the pupils.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body down after a fight-or-flight response, and reverses all of the effects that the sympathetic nervous system had on the body.

Fight-or-flight response

The one and only instinct that humans have. It is the automatic reaction to a (perceived) stressful event.

neuron

A nerve cell; the building block of the nervous system.

dendrite

A neuron’s branching extensions that receive messages from other neurons.

axon

A tube-like structure on the neuron that allows messages from the cell body to travel to the axon branches, which send the message away to other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue that protects the axon of a neuron. It also greatly increases the speed of neutral impulses traveling down the axon.

Glial cell

Cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons. They also help in information transmission and memory.

Action potential

The electrical change that a neuron fires down its axon and onto the next cell.

Resting potential

The state that a neuron is in when it is waiting to fire. The outside of the axon’s membrane has mostly positively charged ions, and the inside has mostly negatively charged ions.

Depolarization

The lose of the positive outside/negative inside state when a neuron fires; the transition from resting potential to action potential.

Inhibition

A process that makes a neuron less likely to fire an action potential.

Excitation

A process that makes a neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neutral impulse.

All-or-none response

The principle that a neuron either completely fires, or does not fire at all because the threshold was not met.

Refractory period

The pause that occurs after a neuron has fired. The neuron cannot fire again until the state of resting potential (positive outside/negative inside) is restored.

synapse

The meeting point of a neuron’s axon terminal button and the dendrite of another neuron/

synaptic gap

The tiny gap between a neuron’s axon terminal button and another neuron’s dendrite. Neurotransmitters travel in this gap.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. The bind to receptors sites on the dendrites and that influences whether or not the neuron will fire.

Reuptake

The re-absorption of excess neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Agonists

Molecules that increase a neurotransmitter’s action. They act like neurotransmitters at receptor sites.

Antagonists

Molecules that inhibit a neurotransmitter’s action. They block the neurotransmitter from binding at receptor sites.

Endocrine system

Made up of glands and fatty tissue that produce hormones.

hormones

Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and affect a variety of things, including hunger drive, sex drive, and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A neutral structure that controls the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the rest of the endocrine glands. It also regulates hunger and sex drives.

Pituitary gland

The “master gland” of the endocrine system. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that tell other glands in the body to produce more hormones.

depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions.

tolerance

The body's reduced response to a drug resulting from repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive substance use that continues despite harmful consequences. The user starts to crave the substance and struggles to stop using it.

Behavior addiction

Compulsive, dysfunctional behaviors not caused by altered brain activity due to drugs. Gambling addictions are a prime example of this.

withdrawl

Discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing an addictive drug or stopping an addictive behavior.

stimulants

Drugs that excite neutral activity and speed up bodily functions.

hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions of reality and create sensory images without sensory input.

Near-death experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after being very close to death, like with cardiac arrest. Hallucinogens can also simulate this kind of experience.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout life.

Biopsychosocial approach

An approach to studying our behavior and thinking by taking into account all systems, biological, psychological, and socio-cultural.

CT scan

Uses radiation to study structure of the brain using a series of x-rays combined with computer technology to create an image of the brain.

PET scan

Uses radiation to study the function of the brain and body. It tracks a special radioactive glucose as it is used by the brain and body.

MRI

Uses magnetism to study structure of the brain. Magnetism and radio waves are used to create a detailed picture of the brain.

fMRI

Uses magnetism to study function of the brain by detecting changes in blood flow.

EEG

Uses electricity to study function of the brain. It is a cap with many little electrodes that is placed on the head and measures electrical activity in the brain.

Forebrain

Manages complex cognition, sensory functions, and fine motor functions. It is further divided into four different lobes.

Midbrain

Controls some rough motor movements and auditory/visual information.

Hindbrain

Directs survival functions like breathing and sleeping. Gives us base consciousness as well.

Brainstem

The point at which the spinal cord connects to the brain. It is the innermost region of the brain. It is very well protected because it controls automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem. It controls the most essential involuntary actions like heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

The structure that sits right on top of the medulla. Controls sleep, coordination, and arousal. It serves as the bridge between the medulla/spinal cord and the cerebral cortex.

Reticular formation

The nerve network inside the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the thalamus. It filters information coming from the spinal cord and relays it to other parts of the brain. It is also a big component of arousal and alertness.

Cerebellum

Located in the rear of the brain, behind the brain stem. It controls procedural learning and implicit memory. With the pons, it coordinates movements.

Thalamus

The structure that sits atop the brain stem. It process all sensory information (except olfaction) and sends that information to different areas of the brain. It also receives replies from those areas and sends them to the cerebellum and medulla.

Corpus callosum

The structure in the very center of the brain that connects the left and right sides of the cerebral cortex.

Limbic system

The system of structures and glands located mostly in the forebrain that control emotion, memory, and sex/hunger drives.

Amygdala

The neutral clusters in the limbic system that give us the fight-or-flight response. It enables the basic emotions of aggression and fear.

Hippocampus

The structure in the limbic system that processes conscious and explicit memories for storage.

Frontal lobes

The areas of the brain located at the front that are responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling impulses.

Parietal lobes

The areas of the brain located at the top and back that integrate sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain, and are involved in spatial awareness.

Temporal lobes

The areas of the brain located on the sides that are primarily responsible for processing auditory information and are also involved in memory and emotion.

Occipital lobes

The areas of the brain located at the back that are primarily responsible for processing visual information and interpreting visual stimuli.

Motor strip

A specialized area located at the back of the frontal lobes. It controls voluntary movements.

Sensory strip

The specialized area located at the front of the parietal lobe. It processes touch and movement sensations.

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that aren’t involved with motor/sensory functions. They are involved in higher mental processes like learning, speaking, and thinking.

Phinneas Gage

A 19th-century railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod accidentally penetrated his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. His case provided significant insights into the role of the frontal lobes in personality and behavior, as he became quite mean and impulsive after the accident.

Functional connectivity

All different areas of the brain communicating with each other to create who we are as a person.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons throughout a person’s life.

Lateralization

The tendency for certain cognitive processes and functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other, such as language in the left hemisphere and spatial abilities in the right.

Dual processing

The principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious levels.

Parallel processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time. Used to process new information or to solve hard problems.

Blindsight

When a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing or processing it.

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle that regulates temperature and alertness.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that control the circadian rhythm. In response to light, it adjusts melatonin levels which create feelings of sleepiness or alertness.

REM sleep

The stage of sleep where vivid dreams commonly occur. It stands for “rapid eye movement” sleep.

Alpha waves

The slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Hypnagogic hallucinations

The sensory experience like falling or floating that occur while transitioning from wakefulness to sleep.

Delta waves

Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Sleep paralysis

An experience where a person is conscious, but cannot move any part of their body. It occurs when the motor cortex’s messages are still blocked from when the person was in REM sleep, so when the person is awake, they cannot move their body.

Restorative sleep

A phase of sleep crucial for physical recuperation and mental refreshment, allowing the body to repair itself and consolidate memories.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable “sleep attacks,” where a person falls directly into deep sleep or REM sleep.