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Maternal effect
Phenomenon where the genotype of the maternal parent determines the phenotype of the offspring.
Epigenetic inheritance
Transmission of non-genetic information that affects gene expression across generations.
Dosage compensation
Mechanism that equalizes gene expression between sexes despite differing chromosome numbers.
Lyon Hypothesis
Theory explaining X-chromosome inactivation in female mammals.
X-Chromosome Inactivation
Process by which one of the X chromosomes in females is randomly inactivated to balance dosage.
Barr bodies
Inactivated X chromosomes in female somatic cells.
Genomic Imprinting
Differential expression of a gene depending on whether it is inherited from the mother or the father.
Monoallelic expression
Expression of only one allele of a gene while the other allele is silent.
DNA methylation
Addition of methyl groups to DNA, affecting gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
Extranuclear inheritance
Inheritance of traits determined by genes located outside the nucleus, such as mitochondrial DNA.
Mitochondrial DNA
Circular DNA located in mitochondria, inherited maternally.
Chloroplast DNA
DNA found in chloroplasts, involved in photosynthesis, also inherited maternally.
Heteroplasmy
Presence of multiple types of mitochondrial DNA within a single cell.
Endosymbiosis Theory
Theory explaining the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts as former free-living prokaryotes.
Synteny
Conservation of blocks of genetic information across species.
Genetic Linkage
Tendency of genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together.
Two-factor cross
Genetic cross examining the inheritance of two different traits.
Three-factor cross
Genetic cross examining the inheritance of three different traits.
Recombinant offspring
Offspring that have a different combination of alleles than either parent.
Nonparental offspring
Offspring that do not resemble either parent due to recombination.
Non-recombinant offspring
Offspring that have the same combination of alleles as the parents.
Positive interference
Phenomenon where one crossover event reduces the likelihood of another crossover event occurring nearby.
Karyotype
Photographic or diagrammatic representation of an individual's complete set of chromosomes.
Deletion
Loss of a chromosome segment.
Duplication
Repeated segment of a chromosome.
Inversion
Rearrangement of a chromosomal segment in reverse order.
Translocation
Movement of a chromosome segment to another chromosome.
Paralogs
Genes that have evolved by duplication and may have different functions.
Cri du chat syndrome
Genetic disorder caused by deletion of a segment on chromosome 5, characterized by a distinctive cry.
Down syndrome
Genetic disorder caused by trisomy of chromosome 21.
Robertsonian translocation
Fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes at their centromeres.
Semisterility
Reduced fertility, often due to chromosomal abnormalities.
G-banding
Technique for staining chromosomes to produce a pattern of bands.
Aneuploidy
Condition of having an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Euploidy
Condition of having a complete set of chromosomes.
Polytene chromosome
Giant chromosome whose structure consists of many identical chromatids lying alongside one another.
Nondisjunction
Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
Haplodiploid
Organisms with two different forms of sex determination based on ploidy.
Autopolyploidy
Polyploidy that arises from a single species.
Alloploidy
Polyploidy that involves the combining of chromosomes from two different species.
Allopolyploidy
Polyploidy resulting from hybridization between two different species.
