ap psych mod 8 - clinical psychology

APA’s definition of disordered behaviour

marked by a “clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour.”

biological/medical model

the concept that psychological disorders primarily have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital

biopsychosocial model

the concept that in the study of psychological disorders, biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences work together to create our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, meaning that cultures also differ in sources of stress and traditional ways of coping

DSM-5

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders, utilising detailed diagnostic criteria and codes, which guide medical diagnoses and treatments

pros of diagnostic labelling

can help organise disorders according to behaviours and brain activity related to negative or positive emotions, cognition, social relationships, and arousal and sleep, improving psychologists’ ability to classify and treat disorders

cons of diagnostic labelling

can be subjective, or value judgements disguised as scientific discoveries, causing potential biases and different treatment after labelling

david rosenhan’s findings related to the use of diagnostic labels

diagnostic labels can change the way other people perceive someone, possibly seeing behaviours and actions in a different manner under the assumption that they are disordered

risk factors which increase vulnerability for mental disorders

poverty, academic issues, birth complications, family issues, and poor socioeconomic conditions

unjustifiable behaviour

the behaviour is impossible to excuse, pardon, or justify

maladaptive behaviour

the behaviour does not demonstrate adequate or appropriate adjustment to the environment or situation

atypical behaviour

the behaviour is not representative of a type, group, or class

deviant behaviour

the behaviour departs from the norm

biological perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as caused by changes in the chemical, structural, or genetic systems of the body

sociocultural perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as the product of learning behaviours within the context of family and culture

psychodynamic perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as the result of repressing one’s threatening thoughts and memories into the unconscious mind, and that abnormal behaviour surfaces as a means of keeping the unwanted thoughts and memories repressed

behavioural perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as a learned process, and that the behaviour is learned, reinforced, and repeated

cognitive perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as the result of illogical thinking patterns and processes

biopsychosocial perspective explanation for the development of psychological disorders

explains disordered behaviour as a result of the combined forces of biological, psychological, social, and cultural influences

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

flat affect, impaired theory of mind, catatonia

hallucinations

the perception of things that exist only in one’s mind - most often voices, which can make insulting remarks or give orders

delusions

false beliefs of persecution or grandeur

disorganised speech

the spilling out of thoughts in no particularly logical order, often forming a word salad

flat affect

a state of no apparent feeling or lack of emotion

impaired theory of mind

difficulty perceiving facial expressions and reading others’ states of mind

catatonia

characterised by motor behaviours ranging from a physical stupor (remaining motionless for hours) to senseless, compulsive actions (such as continually rocking or rubbing an arm to severe and dangerous agitation)

what do statistics reveal about the onset of schizophrenia?

it is not dependent on nationalities, and typically hits as young people are maturing into adulthood - men also tend to be hit earlier, more severely, and more often

chronic schizophrenia

a slow-developing process in which symptoms usually begin to appear by late adolescence or early adulthood, and gets worse as people age - recovery is doubtful and social withdrawal is oftentimes found

acute schizophrenia

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age and is onset quickly, generally caused in response to a traumatic event, with recovery much more likely - more positive symptoms are often exhibited and response to drug therapy is common

brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia

dopamine overactivity, abnormal brain activity, smaller than usual brain anatomy

issues during pregnancy that can increase risk of schizophrenia

low birth weight, maternal diabetes, older paternal age, oxygen deprivation during delivery, possible famine, mid-pregnancy viral infection

when do neurodevelopmental disorders begin?

childhood, often early childhood

when do neurocognitive disorders begin?

outside the developmental period

neurodevelopmental disorders

intellectual disability, ASD, ADHD, tic disorder

neurocognitive disorders

specific learning disorder, delirium, major/minor neurocognitive disorder

diagnostic criteria of intellectual disability

impairment in cognitive functioning (iq) and daily functioning; severity determined by impairment to daily functioning and not iq score

diagnostic criteria of ASD

impairment in social communication and interaction, and repetitive behaviours, interests, or activities

diagnostic criteria of ADHD

symptoms beginning before age 12, inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

diagnostic criteria of tic disorder

physical and vocal tics beginning in childhood, not due to another condition or as a side effect to medicine or other substance; includes tourette’s syndrome

diagnostic criteria of specific learning disorder

learning deficit in reading, written expression, and/or mathematics

diagnostic criteria of delirium

disturbance in attention and awareness, disturbance in thinking, develops suddenly and is different from individual’s normal functioning, and cannot be better explained by another cognitive condition

diagnostic criteria of major/minor neurocognitive disorder

cognitive decline in attention, executive function, learning and memory, language, perception-motor cognition, and/or social cognition, occurs outside of the developmental period, interferes with daily functioning, and may be classified as “due to” alzheimer’s disease, traumatic brain injury, etc.

stress-vulnerability model

the model that assumes a biological sensitivity, or vulnerability, to a certain disorder, resulting in the development of that disorder under the correct conditions of environmental or emotional stress

symptoms of generalised anxiety disorder

unexplainable and continual tenseness and unease; excessive and uncontrollable worry that persists for 6+ months - continuous worrying, often jittery, agitated, and sleep-deprived, and the gaze becomes fixed on potential threats; concentration is difficult as attention switches between worries

autonomic nervous system arousal

can cause furrowed brows, twitching eyelids, trembling, sweating, or fidgeting in GAD patients

symptoms of panic disorder

the experience of panic attacks, sudden episodes of intense dread, and fearing the next episode’s unpredictable onset

agoraphobia

the fear or avoidance of public situations from which escape may be difficult

symptoms of phobias

a persistent, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation

specific phobias

phobias which may focus on animals, insects, heights, blood, or close spaces

two components of OCD

obsessions and compulsions

obsessions

unwanted repetitive thoughts

compulsions

behaviours often in response to obsessions

examples of traumatic events which may cause PTSD

accidents, disasters, violent assaults, sexual assaults

symptoms of PTSD

recurring haunting memories and nightmares, hypervigilance for potential threats, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and insomnia - symptoms last for over 1 month and are common in soldiers who return from war

genetic and sex influence on PTSD

the odds of PTSD following a traumatic event are ~2x higher for women than men, and those with a more sensitive emotion-processing limbic system are also more prone

symptoms of major depressive disorder

a state of hopelessness and lethargy lasting 2+ weeks - symptoms include depressed mood or reduced interest, dramatically reduced interest or enjoyment in most activities majority of the time, significant challenges regulating appetite, weight, or sleep, physical agitation, feeling listless, worthless, or unwarranted guilt, issues in thinking, concentration, or making decisions, and thinking repetitively of death and/or suicide

symptoms of persistent depressive disorder/dysthymia

similar to major depressive disorder, but rather with milder depressive symptoms which last a much longer period of time - 2+ years - symptoms include difficulty with decision making and concentration, feeling hopeless, poor self-esteem, reduced energy levels, and problems regulating sleep and/or appetite

symptoms of bipolar disorder

the alternation between extremes of depressive episodes and overexcited states of mania

what factors does the biological perspective explain depression with?

genetics, diminished brain activity, and poorer nutrition

what role does gender play in depression?

beginning in the early teenage years, women are near twice as vulnerable to depression, oftentimes related to their tendency to ruminate or overthink

what role does explanatory style play in depression?

depressed or depression-prone people respond to bad events in a self-focused, self-blaming manner, with a stable and global explanatory style, perpetuating the negative thoughts and feelings

what role does learned helplessness play in depression?

with the experiences of learned helplessness and passive resignation, pessimistic, overgeneralised, self-blaming attributions can create a sense of depressing hopelessness

what role does culture play in depression?

with the rise of individualism and the decline of commitment to religion and family in western cultures, self-blaming for personal failures is increased, and therefore more negative thoughts and attitudes occur

mania

a period of very elevated mood and excitability, similar in nature to euphoria - the person feels superhuman and invincible, and during this state, may not sleep and be unable to concentrate

depression (in bipolar disorder)

a period of a severe low, symptoms and behaviours similar in manner to major depressive disorder

treatments for bipolar disorder

includes administration of lithium, a psychoactive medication - there is no cure, but one who takes the medication regularly can live a symptom-free life

somatic symptom disorders

characterised as having distressing symptoms which take a somatic/bodily form without apparent physical causes

common identifiers of conversion disorder

very specific physical symptoms which are not compatible with recognised medical or neurological conditions, including things such as losing sensation in ways that make no neurological sense, unexplained paralysis, blindness, or an inability to swallow

symptoms associated with DID

two or more distinct identities, each with its own voice and mannerisms, which seem to control a person’s behaviour at different times - typically, the '“original” alter denies any awareness of the others

effects of acute stress disorder

results from an experience with a major stressor - symptoms include anxiety, dissociation, repeated nightmares, trouble sleeping, difficulty concentrating, and flashbacks in which people “relive” the event - symptoms last for as long as 1 month following the event

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder in which the person is preoccupied with being seriously ill, and constantly worried about supposed symptoms, regularly visiting doctors - physical symptoms are either not present or mild and clearly do not justify the fear experienced by the individual

dissociative amnesia

a partial or complete loss of memory, including personal information, and the person may not be able to remember their name, recognise family members, or recall past experiences - procedural memory, however, remains

depersonalisation/derealisation disorder

a dissociative disorder in which individuals feel detached and disconnected from themselves, their bodies, and their surroundings

characteristics of antisocial personality disorder

exhibition of a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even when done towards those close to them, and often aggressive and unrestrained in their behaviours - amygdala is often smaller with less active frontal lobes

symptoms of anorexia

often triggered by a weight-loss diet, they drop significantly below normal weight, yet feel fat, fear being fat, diet obsessively, and sometimes exercise excessively - about half display a binge-purge-depression cycle

symptoms of bulimia

marked by weight fluctuations within or above normal ranges, making it easier to hide, and can also be triggered by a weight-loss diet broken by bingeing on restricted foods - they eat in spurts, sometimes influenced by negative emotion or friends who are bingeing; in a repetitive cycle, overeating is followed by compensatory vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise - fearful of becoming overweight, they binge-purge eat and experience depression, guilt, and anxiety

symptoms of binge-eating

engagement in significant bouts of overeating, followed by remorse, but do not purge, fast, or exercise excessively and could be overweight

dramatic or erratic cluster type personality disorders

marked by behaviour that seems over the top from what society views as normal - associated with antisocial personality disorder, BPD, histrionic personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder

odd or eccentric cluster type personality disorders

marked by behaviour that seems bizarre compared to societal normalities - associated with paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder

anxious or fearful cluster type personality disorders

marked by excessive, nervous behaviour that is greater than societal normalities - associated with avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not OCD)

antisocial personality disorder

marked by a lack of conscience, lying, stealing, cheating, and fighting

borderline personality disorder (BPD)

marked by an inability to form and keep meaningful relationships

histrionic personality disorder

marked by shallow, attention-seeking behaviour

narcissistic personality disorder

marked by an exaggeration of one’s own importance and difficulty accepting criticism

paranoid personality disorder

marked by a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness

schizoid personality disorder

marked by a pattern of detachment from social relationships

schizotypal personality disorder

marked by a need for social seclusion and isolation

avoidant personality disorder

marked by an avoidance of social interaction for fear of ridicule, humiliation, rejection, or dislike

dependent personality disorder

marked by an excessive need to be taken care of

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not OCD)

marked by a need for control, perfectionism, and a preoccupation with details, rules, and productivity

psychodynamic explanation of personality disorders

personality disorders are a result of the inadequate resolution of the oedipus complex or failure to move on from the anal stage of development

behavioural explanation of personality disorders

personality disorders are learned traits which are then reinforced through the environment

biological explanation of personality disorders

personality disorders such as antisocial personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder have a genetic component

sociocultural explanation of personality disorders

personality disorders are correlated with disturbances in familial relationships, communication, and parenting styles

warning signs of eating disorders

loss of enamel on teeth from overexposure of stomach acid, remarkable weight loss in a short period of time, hiding food in strange places, loss of hair and pale skin, bloodshot eyes with bruising, bruised or calloused knuckles, frequent bathroom trips after eating, obsession with or continuous exercise, wearing clothes which hide body shape, reading weight loss books, complaints of feeling cold, and/or an obsession with food, calories, eating behaviours, and fat content

two categories of treatments for mental illness used in western society

psychotherapy and biomedical therapy

eclectic therapy

therapy which utilises a blend of techniques from various forms of therapy

insight therapy/rogers’ client-centered therapy

the client leads the discussion, and the therapist actively listens without judgement or personal interpretation, as well as not directing the client towards any particular insights with the belief that most people possess the resource for personal growth

traits rogers felt therapists should possess

acceptance, genuineness, and empathy

techniques used during client-centered therapy

active listening, an environment which provides an unconditional positive regard (nonjudgemental), paraphrasing, inviting clarification, and reflection of feelings