The American Civil War and Reconstruction

Prelude to Civil War (1860-1861)

Growing sectionalism following the Mexican War (1846-1848), the collapse of the Whig Party over slavery, the rise of the Republican Party opposing the extension of slavery into western territories, and dissatisfaction with President James Buchanan’s administration brought the nation to the brink of civil war.

Republican Party

Political party that emerged after the demise of the Whig Party; one of its core values was prohibiting the extension of slavery into the western territories, and it recognized it could win the presidency without carrying Southern states.

James Buchanan (Democrat, 1857-1861)

Described as appeasing, indecisive, and ineffective; viewed secession as illegal but claimed he lacked constitutional authority to stop it. Failed to act decisively when South Carolina fired on an unarmed resupply ship to Fort Sumter, contributing to Southern secession and the coming of the Civil War.

Election of 1860

Highly sectional election in which the Democratic Party split into Northern and Southern factions, the Constitutional Union Party formed, and Abraham Lincoln won the presidency by carrying all Northern states (except 3 electoral votes from New Jersey), triggering Southern secession.

Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat, IL)

Nominated by Northern Democrats in 1860 after Southern delegates walked out of the Democratic convention over the issue of federal protection for slavery in the territories.

John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat, KY)

Nominated by Southern Democrats in 1860 supporting federal protection and extension of slavery into western territories; carried Southern states in the election.

Constitutional Union Party

Formed by former Whigs seeking to preserve the Union; nominated John Bell for president in 1860.

John Bell (Constitutional Union, TN)

Presidential candidate in 1860 representing former Whigs who aimed to preserve the Union; carried Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee.

Abraham Lincoln (Republican, 1861-1865)

Won the 1860 election without being listed on Southern ballots; viewed by Southerners as equivalent to an abolitionist. His election prompted seven Southern states to secede before his inauguration. As president, he preserved the Union, issued the Emancipation Proclamation, delivered the Gettysburg Address, supported total war strategy, and led the nation through the Civil War until his assassination in 1865.

South Carolina Secession Convention (December 20, 1860)

Called by the South Carolina legislature; meeting in Charleston, delegates declared the Union dissolved between South Carolina and the United States, beginning formal secession.

Confederate States of America (1861)

Formed by seven seceded Southern states (SC, AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, and TX) meeting in Montgomery, Alabama; adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution but recognized states’ rights, guaranteed perpetual slavery, prohibited protective tariffs and internal improvements, and limited the president to one six-year term.

Jefferson Davis (Confederate President, MS, 1861-1865)

Selected as president of the Confederate States of America; viewed secession as a peaceful act based on consent of the governed and ordered the attack on Fort Sumter.

Civil War (1861-1865)

Military conflict between the Union (North) and the Confederate States of America (South) that began with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, after Southern secession following Abraham Lincoln’s election. The war centered on preserving the Union and, after the Emancipation Proclamation, ending slavery. Key strategies included the Union’s Anaconda Plan and total war campaigns under Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. The conflict ended with Robert E. Lee’s surrender at Appomattox on April 9, 1865, after approximately 625,000 deaths, preserving the Union and leading to the abolition of slavery through the Thirteenth Amendment.

Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861)

Confederate forces fired on the federal fort in Charleston Harbor after Lincoln sent unarmed resupply ships, beginning the Civil War; Lincoln’s strategy shifted responsibility for initiating conflict to the Confederacy.

Anaconda Plan

Union strategy proposed by General Winfield Scott to encircle the Confederacy through a naval blockade, control of the Border States, seizure of the Mississippi River, and invasion of the Southern heartland, forming the basis of Northern military strategy.

Battle of Antietam (1862)

Bloody battle in which General George B. McClellan defeated Robert E. Lee but failed to pursue him (cost McClellan his command.); provided Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation and marked a strategic Union success.

Emancipation Proclamation (1862)

Announced by Abraham Lincoln after the Union victory at Antietam; freed all slaves within the states in rebellion, transforming the war into a fight against slavery.

Battle of Gettysburg (1863)

Three-day battle in Pennsylvania where Union forces under General George Meade defeated Lee’s army; considered the turning point of the war though Meade failed to pursue Lee afterward.

Gettysburg Address (1863)

Speech delivered by Abraham Lincoln after Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg; reaffirmed the principles of equality and government “of, by, and for the people,” redefining the war as a struggle for human equality, democracy, and a "new birth of freedom" rather than just a fight for union

Ulysses S. Grant (Republican, 1869-1877)

Union general elevated to overall command of Union armies; implemented total war strategy, captured Vicksburg, relentlessly pursued Lee leading to surrender at Appomattox. As president, worked to protect and advance African American rights during Reconstruction though support waned over time.

William Tecumseh Sherman

Grant’s second-in-command, Union general who conducted the “March to the Sea,” destroying Confederate infrastructure from Atlanta to Savannah as part of total war strategy.

Appomattox (April 9, 1865)

Site where General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, effectively ending the Civil War after four years and approximately 625,000 deaths.

Homestead Act (1862)

Offered 160 acres of public land to adult citizens or intended citizens for a small fee and five years’ residence; aimed to develop western territories and established a framework for westward expansion.

Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)

Transferred federal lands to states to fund agricultural and mechanical arts colleges based on congressional representation; viewed by Lincoln as an investment in democracy and federal support of higher education.

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

Constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery in the United States; legally ended slavery following the Civil War.

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Granted equal protection under the law regardless of race, barred former Confederates from office, and invalidated Confederate debts; strengthened federal authority during Reconstruction.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude; expanded political rights for African American men during Reconstruction.

Ten Percent Plan

Lincoln’s Reconstruction proposal allowing Southern states to reenter the Union once 10% of registered voters swore loyalty; emphasized leniency and rapid reunification.

Andrew Johnson (Democrat, 1865-1869)

Became president after Lincoln’s assassination; favored lenient Reconstruction, granted amnesty to many former Confederates, failed to support Black suffrage, opposed Radical Republican policies, vetoed Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights legislation, was impeached for violating the Tenure of Office Act, and avoided removal by one Senate vote.

Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan (1865)

Presidential Reconstruction program requiring Southern states to acknowledge the abolition of slavery, allow amnesty and pardons to most former Confederates who swore loyalty (with wealthy planters and officials required to apply individually), and restore property except slaves. The plan did not provide for African American suffrage and aimed to preserve racial hierarchy while weakening the planter elite. Its leniency enabled former Confederate leaders to regain power and enact Black Codes, escalating conflict with Congressional Republicans.

Black Codes

Laws enacted by Southern states under Johnson’s lenient Reconstruction to control and restrict African Americans’ labor, movement, and rights; aimed to restore planter dominance without slavery and provoked Northern outrage.

Freedmen’s Bureau Act (1866)

Congressional legislation intended to provide political and economic assistance to former slaves; vetoed by Andrew Johnson, escalating conflict between Congress and the president.

Civil Rights Act (1866)

Legislation granting political and economic equality to African Americans; vetoed by Johnson, leading Republicans to view his actions as obstructionist and hostile to Reconstruction.

Reconstruction Act (1867)

Passed by Congressional Republicans; divided the South (except Tennessee) into five military districts, required acceptance of the 13th and 14th Amendments, expanded African American political participation, and placed the South under military occupation, marking the beginning of Radical Reconstruction.

Tenure of Office Act (1867)

Law requiring Senate approval for removal of certain officeholders; Johnson violated it by removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, leading to his impeachment.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (1868)

Congressional effort to remove Johnson for violating the Tenure of Office Act; he avoided conviction by one vote, weakening Radical Republicans’ influence.

Panic of 1873

Economic depression during Grant’s presidency that led to widespread business failures and weakened Northern commitment to Reconstruction and protection of African Americans.

Jim Crow Laws

Southern laws enacted after federal protection declined; reestablished social and cultural dominance over African Americans during the later years of Reconstruction.

Ku Klux Klan

Organization formed in the South to reinforce white dominance and undermine African American rights during Reconstruction.

Election of 1876

Contested election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden involving disputed returns from South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana; resolved through a political agreement granting “Home Rule” to Southern states.

Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican, 1877-1881)

Awarded disputed electoral votes after the Election of 1876; withdrew remaining federal troops from the South, officially ending Reconstruction.

Wormley House Deal (Compromise of 1877)

Alleged political agreement reached after the disputed Election of 1876 between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden; in exchange for granting “Home Rule” to South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, Hayes was awarded the contested electoral votes and certified as president. Its significance was the withdrawal of the last federal troops from those states, officially ending Reconstruction in 1877.

Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat, NY)

Democratic candidate in the Election of 1876; involved in a disputed electoral vote crisis resolved through political compromise.