Lesson 5: Flight Deck Automation & Safety Critical Systems

Warren (1956)

An early definition of automation in the human factors literature came from __________

Automation

It is the "replacement of man by machine or use of machines to control machines"

Smith and Dieterly (1980)

stated that all definitions of automation were system dependent

Billings (1991)

Introduced the following definition of automation that has since been widely accepted: "Automation is a process that controls a function or task without human intervention."

Wiener (1987)

identified workload and fatigue as the critical problems in systems with no automation

Wiener (1987)

identified boredom, complacency, and loss of skills as the critical problems in fully automated systems

poor automation design

Wiener suggested that __________ results in code-induced errors

code-induced errors

These errors are cognitive failures due to nonstandard terminology, digit inversion, missing words, and information mismanagement.

Endsley and Kiris (1995)

they found manual control to have the best

performance and full automation the worst

Billings (1997)

points out, "As software becomes more and more complex, it becomes more and more difficult to verify that it will always function as desired throughout the full operating regime of the aircraft in which it will be placed"

Young, Fanjoy, and Suckow (2006)

reported that pilots who use automation have a less effective crosscheck and reduced manual flight skills based on instructor ratings during simulated flight (110 professional pilots with thousands of flight hours).

Casner and Schooler (2014)

based on a simulator study with 18 airline pilots, concluded that when the flight did not include emergency and/or anomalous events, pilots reported a higher percentage of task-unrelated thoughts (21 percent) than when the flight was not as planned (7 percent)

Casner, Geven, Recker, and

Schooler (2014)

varied the level of automation used by 16 airline pilots in a Boeing 747-400 simulator.

Casner, Geven, Recker, and

Schooler (2014)

They concluded that instrument scan and manual control were retained when automation was used but not cognitive skills.

cognitive skills

Casner, Geven, Recker, and Schooler (2014) concluded that instrument scan and manual control were retained when automation was used but not ________.

very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range navigation (VOR)

Pilots' navigation performance was rated worse using conventional ________ than when using the flight management computer.

automation

Failure recognition was also worse without the

presence of _________ in the flight deck.

judgment, intuition, and experience

One of the most critical aspects of piloting an aircraft is the ability to make decisions based on

autopilot systems

are incredibly effective at managing routine tasks, but they cannot replicate the level of human judgment required when things go off-script.

Weather conditions, equipment malfunctions, and other unexpected variables

these require pilots to think on their feet and adapt quickly

assess the situation, adapt to changes, and execute complex maneuvers when necessary

A human pilot can _________________, something that automated systems are not yet designed to do effectively.

proactive safety measures

automation cannot replace the ________ that human pilots

provide.

High

[Level of Automation] Autopilot and FMS-managed for long durations

Medium

[Level of Automation] Autopilot and FMS- managed for a short period of time

Low (Manual)

[Level of Automation] Non-FMS modes and guidance

the task to be performed, the flight phase, the time available

The correct level of automation depends on:

Short-term

The correct level of automation depends on the task to be performed: ___________— tactical choice, short and head-up action on the flight guidance control panel with immediate aircraft response);

Long-term

The correct level of automation depends on the task to be performed: ___________— strategic choice, longer and head-down action on the FMS CDU with longer-term aircraft response

Short-term

Long-term

The task to be performed:

Departure

En route climb, cruise or descent

Terminal area

Approach

The flight phase:

Normal selection or entry

Last-minute change

The time available:

Workload Reduction

Precision and Efficiency

Fatigue Mitigation

Advantages of Automation

Workload Reduction

Routine tasks that once demanded meticulous attention can now be seamlessly handled by sophisticated systems, allowing pilots to redirect their focus towards the nuanced and critical aspects of flight.

90

On a typical commercial flight, autopilot is used _____ percent of the time.

5 seconds after lift-off

While pilots don't use automation for taking off, the system can be engaged as early as

29,000 feet

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requires that the pilot only engage autopilot when the plane has reached ______ above sea level.

Precision and Efficiency

Modern aircraft, equipped with advanced navigation technologies, can maintain unparalleled accuracy in following designated routes.

incorporation of artificial intelligence,

AI-driven technology can provide real-time data analysis and predictive analytics during the flight

Fatigue Mitigation

Automation serves as a vital defense against pilot fatigue, especially on long-haul flights by handling routine tasks and maintaining stable flight conditions

21 to 23

percent of major aviation accidents in the last two

decades caused by pilot fatigue

overutilization of staff

a huge issue that leads to pilots calling in fatigued

Skill degredation

As automation assumes an increasing share of responsibilities, there is a risk that pilots may become less adept at manually controlling aircraft

6 to 12

professional pilots are required to regularly undergo skill retraining every ____ months.

Loss of awareness

Pilots must guard against complacency and resist the temptation to delegate all responsibilities to automated systems.

Skill degradation

Loss of awareness

Risks of Automation

Safety-critical systems

are aircraft systems whose failure could lead to severe consequences like loss of life, and are designed with rigorous engineering processes, including redundancy, fail-safe mechanisms, and extensive testing, to ensure high reliability.

Safety-critical systems

flight controls, avionics, and warning systems, all governed by strict design standards such as DO-178C for software and DO-254 for hardware

DO-178C

design standard for software

DO-254

design standard for hardware

Fly-by-wire

technology that replaces mechanical linkages with electronic signals, manage the aircraft's dynamics to maintain stability and control.

Avionics

This broad category includes the onboard electronic systems that control aircraft functions, from navigation and communication to power management and displays.

Autopilots

Systems that automatically control the aircraft's flight path, requiring high precision and reliability.

Collision Avoidance Systems

Technologies designed to detect and prevent potential mid-air collisions by analyzing air traffic and warning pilots or even taking evasive action.

Air Traffic Control (ATC) Systems

The ground-based systems that manage air traffic flow, ensuring safe separation of aircraft.

Aircrew Life Support Systems

Systems that provide essential life support in the case of emergencies or when operating at high altitudes.

Engine Control Systems

Systems that monitor and control the aircraft's engines to ensure optimal performance and prevent malfunctions.

Enhancing Aircraft Reliability

[BENEFITS] Safety-critical design ensures that aircraft systems function reliably under a wide range of conditions.

Enhancing Aircraft Reliability

[BENEFITS] By incorporating redundant systems and automated failover mechanisms, engineers minimize the risk of single-point failures.

Protecting Passengers and Crew

[BENEFITS] From advanced collision-avoidance systems to precision-engineered landing gear, safety-critical design directly safeguards lives.

Protecting Passengers and Crew

[BENEFITS] Technologies such as Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning Systems (EGPWS) and autopilot systems exemplify how innovation is harnessed to protect those on board.

Enabling Regulatory Compliance

[BENEFITS] The aviation industry is subject to stringent regulations imposed by bodies such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).

Enabling Regulatory Compliance

[BENEFITS] Safety-critical design is essential for meeting these requirements, ensuring that aircraft are certified for operation.

Complexity

[CHALLENGES] Modern aircraft are highly complex, with millions of interconnected components and systems. Ensuring that every element meets safety standards requires meticulous planning and coordination.

Cost and Time Constraints

[CHALLENGES] Developing and certifying safety-critical systems can be time-intensive and costly. Balancing these factors while maintaining safety standards is a constant challenge.

Emerging Technologies

[CHALLENGES] Integrating new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and advanced sensors, into safety-critical systems requires extensive validation and adaptation of existing standards.

DO-178C

Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification

DO-178C

is the primary document by which the certification authorities such as FAA, EASA and Transport Canada approve all commercial software-based aerospace systems.

DO-178C

the international standard for software development in airborne systems, outlining process standards for planning, development, verification, configuration management, and quality assurance to ensure software safety and reliability.

criticality

DO-178C establishes software levels of ________ (e.g., Level A for catastrophic failures), requiring increasingly rigorous processes and evidence as the criticality

level rises to ensure that the software meets its safety objectives.

DO-254

an avionics standard in aviation that provides Design Assurance guidance for Airborne Electronic Hardware

DO-254

ensures the safety of electronic systems in aircraft by focusing on hardware development, verification, and

compliance with Design Assurance Levels (DALs)

requirements-driven, process-oriented

DO-254 establishes a _____________ approach to minimize risks from hardware failures, working alongside the DO-178C standard for software safety to provide a complete safety solution.

DO-254

it is published RTCA INC. (Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics)