final psychology

What is an operational definition?

A clear and specific explanation of how a variable is measured or defined in a study.

What are the case study, survey, observation, correlational, and experimental methods?

Different research methods in psychology used to gather data.

What is random sampling?

A way to pick people for a study so everyone has an equal chance of being chosen.

What is a positive correlation?

Both variables move in the same direction.

What is a negative correlation?

The variables move in opposite directions.

Does correlation indicate causation?

No, correlation does not imply causation.

What is random assignment?

How participants are assigned to different groups in a study randomly.

What are independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV)?

IV is what the researcher changes; DV is what is measured or affected.

What is experimental control?

Ensuring that only the independent variable is changing.

What is a confound?

A hidden factor that could affect results.

What is generalizability?

Whether study results apply to other people or situations.

What is myelin sheath?

A protective layer wrapped around the axon of a neuron.

What is action potential?

An electrical signal that moves down the axon.

What is a synapse?

The small space between two neurons where messages are passed.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that carry signals across the synapse.

What are endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, and epinephrine?

Neurotransmitters that regulate various functions like mood, pleasure, and response to stress.

What are agonists and antagonists?

Agonists increase neurotransmitter activity; antagonists block it.

What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

Sympathetic speeds up body functions; parasympathetic calms and conserves energy.

What is the endocrine system?

A system that uses hormones to send messages through the bloodstream.

What is the pituitary gland?

Known as the 'master gland' because it controls other glands.

What is EEG?

A method that measures electrical activity in the brain.

What is fMRI?

A technique that uses magnetic fields to look at brain activity.

What is the amygdala?

A brain structure that deals with emotions.

What is the hippocampus?

It helps create new memories.

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.

What are mirror neurons?

Brain cells that fire when you see someone else do something.

What are the somatosensory and motor cortexes?

Somatosensory processes sensory input; motor cortex controls voluntary movements.

What is plasticity?

The brain's ability to change and adapt.

What is inattentional blindness?

Failing to notice a stimulus when focused on another task.

What is change blindness?

Failing to notice changes in a visual stimulus.

How does light affect the SCN?

SCN responds to light by regulating melatonin production.

What is REM sleep?

A sleep stage where dreaming occurs and the brain is active.

What are Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

What is object permanence?

The understanding that objects exist even when not seen.

What is egocentrism?

The inability to see a situation from another person's perspective.

What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Learning occurs through social interaction.

What is the zone of proximal development?

The difference between what a learner can do without help and with help.

What is scaffolding?

Support provided to a learner that is gradually removed as they gain independence.

What is Erickson's stage theory of social development?

A theory that describes eight key conflicts throughout a person's life.

What are attachment styles?

Patterns of attachment behavior developed through early relationships.

What are Baumrind's 4 parenting styles?

Authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved, and authoritative.

What are Kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development?

Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality.

What is delay of gratification?

The ability to wait for a better reward.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by linking a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning based on the consequences of behavior.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others.

What are encoding, storage, and retrieval in memory?

The processes of creating, maintaining, and recalling memories.

What are sensory, short-term, and long-term memory?

Different contexts in which information is stored.

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?

Explicit memory involves conscious recall, while implicit memory is unconscious.

What are maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

Methods of remembering information, with elaborative being more effective.

What is cognitive therapy?

Therapy focused on changing negative thought patterns.

What is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)?

A combined approach to therapy focusing on changing thoughts and behaviors.

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A model of human motivation that ranks needs from basic to complex.

What is self-actualization?

The realization of one's potential and personal fulfillment.

What are internal and external attributions?

Internal explanations focus on personality; external explanations focus on situations.

What is cognitive dissonance?

The uncomfortable feeling when actions don’t match beliefs.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to attribute others' actions to their character rather than situational factors.

What is the bystander effect?

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in emergencies when others are present.

What is psychological determinism?

The belief that all thoughts and actions have causes.

What is labeling theory?

The concept that labels can influence how individuals are perceived.

What are anxiety disorders?

Mental disorders characterized by excessive fear or worry.

What is major depressive disorder?

A mental health condition marked by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

What is bipolar disorder?

A mental disorder characterized by extreme mood swings.

What are personality disorders?

Long-term patterns of behavior that are inflexible and cause distress.

What is psychoanalytic therapy?

A therapeutic approach focusing on uncovering unconscious thoughts.

What is humanistic therapy?

A therapeutic method that emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

What is behavioral therapy?

Therapy that focuses on changing maladaptive behaviors.

What is cognitive-behavioral therapy?

A blend of cognitive and behavioral techniques.

What is the life change approach to measuring stress?

Evaluating stress based on significant life events.

What is the tend-and-befriend hypothesis?

A theory suggesting women may respond to stress by nurturing and seeking social support.

What are Type A and Type B behavior patterns?

Type A is competitive and aggressive; Type B is relaxed and calm.

What is problem-focused coping?

Coping that involves actively addressing a stressor.

What is perceived control?

The belief in one's ability to influence events in their life.

What is expressive writing?

A therapeutic technique that involves writing about emotions.