final psychology

Research Methods

1. What is an operational definition?

• It’s a clear and specific explanation of how a variable is measured or defined in a study.
  
  

• Example: If you study “happiness,” your operational definition might be “score on a happiness questionnaire.”
  
  

2. What are the case study, survey, observation, correlational, and experimental methods?

• Case study:
  
  

  • A deep look at one person (or a small group) to learn something general.
    
    

  • Example: Studying Phineas Gage after his brain injury.
    
    

• Survey:
  
  

  • Asking people questions to find out what they think, feel, or do.
    
    

  • Problems can include biased wording or people not answering truthfully.
    
    

• Observation:
  
  

  • Watching and recording behavior without interfering.
    
    

  • Example: Watching parents drop off kids at daycare to study behavior.
    
    

• Correlational method:
  
  

  • Checks if two things are related, like sleep and test scores.
    
    

  • Shows a relationship but does not show cause.
    
    

• Experimental method:
  
  

  • The only method that can show cause and effect.
    
    

  • The researcher changes one thing (the independent variable) to see if it affects another (the dependent variable).
    
    

3. What is random sampling?

• A way to pick people for a study so everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.
  
  

• It helps make the results more accurate and fair.
  
  

4. What are positive and negative correlations?

• Positive correlation:
  
  

  • Both variables move in the same direction.
    
    

  • Example: The more you study, the higher your grades.
    
    

• Negative correlation:
  
  

  • The variables move in opposite directions.
    
    

  • Example: The more stress you have, the less sleep you get.
    
    

5. Does correlation indicate causation?

• No, just because two things are related doesn’t mean one causes the other.
  
  

• Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates both go up in summer, but one doesn’t cause the other.
  
  

• A third factor (like hot weather) could be involved.
  
  

6. What is a random assignment?

• After picking people for a study, it’s how they are put into groups (like treatment or control) randomly.
  
  

• This makes sure the groups are similar and the results are fair.
  
  

7. What are IVs and DVs?

• Independent variable (IV):
  
  

  • The thing the researcher changes.
    
    

  • Example: Giving someone a new medicine.
    
    

• Dependent variable (DV):
  
  

  • What is measured or affected by the IV.
    
    

  • Example: Checking if the medicine improves symptoms.
    
    

8. What is experimental control?

• Making sure that only the IV is changing and nothing else is messing up the results.
  
  

• Keeps the experiment fair and accurate.
  
  

9. What is a confound (confounding variable)?

• A hidden factor that could mess up the results.
  
  

• It might be the real reason something happened instead of the IV.
  
  

• Example: If one group is older than the other, age might affect the results, not the treatment.
  
  

10. What is generalizability?

• Whether the results of a study apply to other people, places, or situations.
  
  

• If the study only worked for one group, it might not work for everyone.
  
  

The Biology of Behavior

11. What is myelin sheath?

• A protective layer wrapped around the axon of a neuron.
  
  

• Speeds up how fast messages travel through the nerve cell.
  
  

12. What is the action potential?

• An electrical signal that moves down the axon.
  
  

• Happens when the neuron gets enough energy to “fire.”
  
  

• It’s an all-or-nothing event — once it starts, it goes all the way.
  
  

13. What is a synapse?

• The small space between two neurons.
  
  

• This is where messages are passed from one neuron to another.
  
  

14. What are neurotransmitters?

• Chemical messengers that carry signals across the synapse.
  
  

• They fit into receptor spots on the next neuron.
  
  

15. What are endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, and epinephrine?

• Endorphins: Help reduce pain and make you feel good.
  
  

• Dopamine: Helps with movement, learning, memory, and feeling rewarded.
  
  

• Serotonin: Affects mood, sleep, and appetite.
  
  

• Epinephrine (adrenaline): Helps the body handle stress (fight-or-flight response).
  
  

16. What are agonists and antagonists?

• Agonists: Boost the activity of a neurotransmitter (make it work more).
  
  

• Antagonists: Block or reduce the activity of a neurotransmitter.
  
  

17. What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

• Sympathetic nervous system:
  
  

  • Speeds up body functions (like heart rate) when you’re stressed or scared.
    
    

• Parasympathetic nervous system:
  
  

  • Calms your body down and saves energy after the stress is gone.
    
    

18. What is the endocrine system?

• A system that uses hormones to send messages through the bloodstream.
  
  

• Helps control mood, growth, metabolism, and stress.
  
  

What are the pituitary and adrenal glands?

• Pituitary gland:
  
  

  • Called the “master gland” because it controls other glands.
    
    

• Adrenal glands:
  
  

  • Help with energy, mood, and the body’s stress response.
    
    

1. What are the EEG and fMRI?

• EEG (Electroencephalogram):
  
  

  • Measures electrical activity in the brain.
    
    

  • Shows what parts of the brain are active.
    
    

• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
  
  

  • Uses a magnetic field to look at brain activity.
    
    

  • Shows which areas are working during specific tasks.
    
    

2. What is the brainstem?

• Made up of the medulla and pons.
  
  

  • Medulla: Controls automatic body functions like breathing and heartbeat.
    
    

  • Pons: Helps with sleep and connects parts of the brain together.
    
    

3. What is the amygdala?

• A part of the brain that deals with emotions, especially fear and aggression.
  
  

4. What is the hippocampus?

• Called the “gateway to memory.”
  
  

• Helps create new memories that you can consciously recall.
  
  

5. What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

• Frontal lobe:
  
  

  • Handles planning, decision-making, and personality.
    
    

  • Includes the motor cortex (controls movement).
    
    

  • Has Broca’s area (helps produce speech).
    
    

• Parietal lobe:
  
  

  • Processes touch and body position.
    
    

  • Includes the somatosensory cortex (feeling things on your skin).
    
    

• Occipital lobe:
  
  

  • In the back of the head.
    
    

  • Processes visual information (what you see).
    
    

• Temporal lobe:
  
  

  • On the sides of your head.
    
    

  • Deals with hearing and language understanding (includes Wernicke’s area).
    
    

6. What are mirror neurons?

• Special brain cells that fire when you see someone else doing something, as if you were doing it too.
  
  

• Help with learning by watching and understanding others’ actions.
  
  

7. What are the somatosensory and motor cortexes?

• Somatosensory cortex:
  
  

  • Found in the parietal lobe.
    
    

  • Feels touch, pain, temperature, and body position.
    
    

• Motor cortex:
  
  

  • Found in the frontal lobe.
    
    

  • Controls voluntary movements (like raising your hand).
    
    

8. What is plasticity?

• The brain’s ability to change and adapt.
  
  

  • If one part is damaged, another part can take over.
    
    

  • Learning something new can physically change the brain.
    
    

  • Neurogenesis means the brain can even grow new neurons.
    
    

Brain States and Consciousness

1. What are inattentional blindness and change blindness?

• Inattentional blindness:
  
  

  • When you’re so focused on one thing that you miss something else that’s clearly there.
    
    

  • Example: You don’t see someone walk by in a costume because you’re busy texting.
    
    

• Change blindness:
  
  

  • When you don’t notice a change in something you’re looking at.
    
    

  • Example: Someone gets a haircut and you don’t realize it right away.
    
    

2. How does light affect the SCN, and how are the pineal gland and melatonin involved in our sleep-wake cycle?

• Light affects the SCN:
  
  

  • The SCN (a part of your brain in the hypothalamus) responds to light.
    
    

  • Light tells the SCN to stop making melatonin (the sleep hormone).
    
    

• Darkness affects the SCN:
  
  

  • When it gets dark, the SCN tells the pineal gland to make melatonin.
    
    

  • Melatonin makes you sleepy.
    
    

• Pineal gland:
  
  

  • It makes melatonin based on signals from the SCN.
    
    

• Melatonin:
  
  

  • A hormone that makes you feel tired and ready to sleep.
    
    

3. What is REM sleep? What happens during REM sleep (e.g., sleep paralysis)?

• REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep):
  
  

  • A stage of sleep where your brain acts like it’s awake, but your body is not moving.
    
    

• What happens during REM:
  
  

  • Your eyes move quickly under your eyelids.
    
    

  • Heart rate and breathing get faster or irregular.
    
    

  • Sleep paralysis: Your body can’t move even though your brain is active — this stops you from acting out your dreams.
    
    

  • Most dreaming happens in this stage.
    
    

4. What are the 3 stages of N-REM sleep? When is growth hormone released from the pituitary gland?

• Stage N1 (light sleep):
  
  

  • You’re just starting to fall asleep.
    
    

  • You may twitch or feel like you’re falling (hypnic jerk).
    
    

  • You might see dream-like images (hallucinations).
    
    

• Stage N2 (true sleep):
  
  

  • Your brain slows down.
    
    

  • Heart rate and muscles relax.
    
    

• Stage N3 (deep sleep):
  
  

  • Brain activity slows even more.
    
    

  • It’s hard to wake up. You might feel confused if someone wakes you.
    
    

  • Growth hormone is released in this stage from the pituitary gland.
    
    

Developing Through the Lifespan

1. What was Piaget’s approach to cognitive development?

• Piaget believed kids learn in stages as they grow.
  
  

• He said kids build mental “schemas” (categories in the mind) to understand the world.
  
  

• They adapt these schemas through new experiences.
  
  

1. What are assimilation and accommodation?

• Assimilation: Adding new info into what you already know.
  
  (Ex: Calling all animals “dog” because you already know “dog.”)
  
  

• Accommodation: Changing what you know to fit new info.
  
  (Ex: Learning that a cat isn’t a dog, so you make a new category for “cat.”)
  
  

2. What are Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development?

1. Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs):

• Learning through senses and actions (looking, touching, etc.).
  
  

• Develop object permanence—knowing something exists even if you can’t see it.
  
  

2. Preoperational (2–7 yrs):

• Can use language and imagination.
  
  

• Still egocentric—can’t see others’ points of view.
  
  

• Don’t understand conservation—think a taller glass has more water even if amounts are equal.
  
  

3. Concrete Operational (7–11 yrs):

• Can think logically about real (concrete) things.
  
  

• Understand reversibility (things can go back to how they were).
  
  

• Understand transitivity (if A > B and B > C, then A > C).
  
  

4. Formal Operational (11+ yrs):

• Can think abstractly and plan for the future.
  
  

• Understand hypothetical and complex ideas.
  
  

1. What is object permanence?

• Knowing something still exists even when you can’t see or hear it (like a toy hidden under a blanket).
  
  

2. What is egocentrism?

• Thinking only from your own point of view. Kids don’t understand that others see things differently.
  
  

3. What is conservation?

• Understanding that things stay the same amount even if they look different (like water in different shaped glasses).
  
  

2. What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

• Learning happens best with help from others (parents, teachers, peers).
  
  

• Focuses on social interaction as key to learning.
  
  

1. What is the zone of proximal development?

• The sweet spot where a child can do something with help, but not yet on their own.
  
  

2. What is scaffolding?

• The support or help given to a child, which is gradually taken away as they learn to do it by themselves.
  
  

3. What is theory of mind?

• Understanding that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and knowledge that might be different from yours.
  
  

4. What is Erik Erikson’s stage theory of social development? What is the basic challenge in each of the 8 stages?

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 yr):
   
   

   • Babies learn to trust if cared for consistently.
     
     

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1–3 yrs):
   
   

   • Toddlers want independence. Success = confidence.
     
     

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–5 yrs):
   
   

   • Kids want to try new things. Encouragement = pride.
     
     

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6–11 yrs):
   
   

   • Kids compare themselves to others. Success = confidence; failure = feeling “not good enough.”
     
     

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Teen years):
   
   

   • Teens try to find out who they are.
     
     

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult):
   
   

   • Focus on forming close relationships.
     
     

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age):
   
   

   • Giving back (work, family, community) vs. feeling stuck.
     
     

8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old age):
   
   

   • Looking back with pride or regret.
     
     

5. What were the results of Harlow’s studies of infant attachment?

• Baby monkeys chose soft, cuddly “mothers” over wire ones with food.
  
  

• Showed comfort and touch are more important than just feeding.
  
  

6. How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment? What are the attachment styles?

She used the “Strange Situation” experiment:

• Child is left alone briefly and then reunited with parent.
  
  

Attachment Styles:

1. Secure:
   
   

   • Happy when parent is there, upset when gone, comforted when they return.
     
     

2. Insecure-Avoidant:
   
   

   • Doesn’t care much if parent leaves or comes back.
     
     

3. Insecure-Anxious/Ambivalent:
   
   

   • Clings to parent, very upset when they leave, hard to calm down when they return.
     
     

7. What are Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles?

1. Authoritarian:
   
   

   • Strict, controlling, not warm.
     
     

   • Kids: lower self-esteem, not very social.
     
     

2. Permissive:
   
   

   • Very loving, but few rules.
     
     

   • Kids: poor self-control.
     
     

3. Uninvolved (Neglectful):
   
   

   • Not warm, not involved.
     
     

   • Kids: low self-esteem, emotional problems.
     
     

4. Authoritative:
   
   

   • Warm and has rules. Explains reasons.
     
     

   • Kids: do best—confident, good in school.
     
     

1. What are Kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development (e.g., preconventional)?

1. Preconventional Morality (ages 4–10)

• Do the right thing to avoid punishment or get a reward.
  
  

• Example: A kid might not steal a cookie because they don’t want to get in trouble.
  
  

2. Conventional Morality (after age 10)

• Do what’s right based on rules or laws.
  
  

• Example: You don’t steal because it’s against the law and you want to be seen as a good person.
  
  

3. Postconventional Morality (early teens to adulthood)

• Make decisions based on your own values and conscience.
  
  

• Example: You might break a law if you believe it’s unfair or goes against your morals.
  
  

2. What is delay of gratification? What was Mischel’s (1961) “marshmallow test”?

1. What is delay of gratification?

• It’s the ability to wait for a better reward later instead of taking a smaller one right away.
  
  

• Example: Choosing to study now instead of going out, so you get a better grade later.
  
  

2. What was Mischel’s “marshmallow test”?

• A test where kids were given 1 marshmallow now or told they could get 2 marshmallows if they waited a few minutes.
  
  

• Kids who could wait tended to do better later in life with things like school and friendships.
  
  

Sensation and Perception

1. What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

• Bottom-up processing:
  
  

  • Starts with raw sensory input (like what your eyes or ears sense).
    
    

  • Then that info gets sent to the brain to figure out what it is.
    
    

  • Example: You see something for the first time and try to understand what it is by just looking at the details.
    
    

• Top-down processing:
  
  

  • Starts with what you already know or expect.
    
    

  • Your brain uses past experiences to make sense of what you’re seeing or hearing.
    
    

  • Example: You can read messy handwriting because you know what the sentence is likely to say.
    
    

2. What are absolute thresholds?

• The smallest amount of a stimulus (like light, sound, or touch) that you can notice 50% of the time.
  
  

• Example: The lowest volume of a beep you can hear half the time during a hearing test.
  
  

3. What are difference thresholds (the jnd)?

• Difference threshold (Just Noticeable Difference):
  
  

  • The smallest change in a stimulus that you can notice.
    
    

  • Example: Noticing your TV volume went up by 1 bar.
    
    

• Weber’s Law:
  
  

  • The difference you need to notice depends on the size of the original stimulus.
    
    

  • Example: You’ll notice a 5-pound difference when lifting 10 lbs vs. 15 lbs, but not if you’re lifting 100 lbs vs. 105 lbs.
    
    

4. What is signal detection theory?

• We notice things not just based on the senses, but also our judgment.
  
  

• Whether we detect something depends on:
  
  

  • How sensitive our senses are.
    
    

  • If we’re expecting something.
    
    

  • How motivated we are to notice it.
    
    

  • Past experiences (like false alarms or misses).
    
    

• Example: You think your phone buzzed because you’re expecting a text—even if it didn’t.
  
  

5. What is sensory adaptation?

• When your senses get used to something and stop noticing it.
  
  

• Example: You stop noticing a strong smell in a room after a few minutes.
  
  

• This helps you focus on new, more important changes in your environment.
  
  

6. What is the Gestalt approach (overall – not specific principles such as figure-ground)?

• The Gestalt approach says we naturally see things as whole shapes or forms, not just a bunch of parts.
  
  

• Example: When looking at a picture, we see a full object (like a face) instead of just seeing random eyes, nose, and mouth.
  
  

7. What is perceptual constancy?

• Your brain keeps your perception stable even if what your eyes see changes.
  
  

• Types of constancy:
  
  

  • Color constancy: Things look the same color even under different lighting.
    
    

  • Lightness constancy: Shades look the same even if the lighting changes.
    
    

  • Shape constancy: An object’s shape looks the same even if the angle changes.
    
    

  • Size constancy: An object stays the same size in your mind even if it looks smaller when far away.
    
    

Classical Conditioning

What is classical conditioning?

• Learning by connecting one thing (stimulus) to another.
  
  

• You start reacting to something new because it’s been linked to something you already react to.
  
  

2. How did Pavlov study classical conditioning?

• He studied how dogs salivate (drool).
  
  

• He noticed they started drooling when they just saw the food dish, not just the food.
  
  

• He rang a bell (something neutral) when giving them food.
  
  

• Eventually, the dogs started drooling just from hearing the bell.
  
  

3. What are the unconditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, and conditioned stimulus?

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something that naturally causes a reaction (e.g., food).
  
  

• Unconditioned response (UR): Natural reaction to the US (e.g., salivating at food).
  
  

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): Something new that’s paired with the US (e.g., a bell).
  
  

• Conditioned response (CR): The learned reaction to the CS (e.g., salivating at the bell).
  
  

4. What is generalization?

• When you react to things that are similar to the original trigger.
  
  

• Example: If a dog hears a different bell and still salivates.
  
  

5. What is discrimination?

• When you only react to the exact trigger, not similar ones.
  
  

• Example: Dog only salivates to one specific bell, not others.
  
  

6. What is extinction?

• When you stop reacting to the trigger.
  
  

• Example: If the bell rings but no food comes, the dog stops salivating after a while.
  
  

7. What was Watson and Raynor’s study with Little Albert?

• They showed a baby (Albert) a white rat and made a loud noise at the same time.
  
  

• Albert got scared and started fearing the rat.
  
  

• He then started fearing other furry things too (like a rabbit or a fur coat).
  
  

8. What is counterconditioning?

• It’s used to undo a bad or scary reaction.
  
  

• Example: If a kid is scared of a rabbit (CS), they give the kid cookies (something good) while showing the rabbit.
  
  

• This replaces fear with a happy feeling.
  
  

Operant Conditioning

1. What is operant conditioning?

• A way of learning where behavior is shaped by what happens after it (the consequences).
  
  

• If something good happens after a behavior, you’re more likely to do it again.
  
  

• If something bad happens, you’re less likely to do it again.
  
  

2. What is a Skinner box?

• A special box used in experiments with animals (like rats).
  
  

• The animal presses a bar and gets food as a reward.
  
  

• It shows how behavior can be increased using rewards.
  
  

3. What is shaping?

• A way to teach new behavior step-by-step.
  
  

• You reward small actions that get closer to the final behavior you want.
  
  

• Example: Rewarding a dog first for sitting, then for lying down, then for rolling over.
  
  

4. What are reinforcements and punishments?

• Reinforcement: Makes a behavior more likely to happen again.
  
  

• Punishment: Makes a behavior less likely to happen again.
  
  

5. What are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment?

• Positive reinforcement: Give something good to increase a behavior (e.g., candy for doing homework).
  
  

• Negative reinforcement: Take away something bad to increase a behavior (e.g., no chores if you finish early).
  
  

• Positive punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (e.g., extra homework for talking in class).
  
  

• Negative punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away phone for being rude).
  
  

6. What is generalization?

• When a behavior learned in one situation is done in a different situation too.
  
  

7. What is discrimination?

• When you only do a behavior in one specific situation, not in others.
  
  

8. What is extinction?

• When the reward stops, and the behavior slowly goes away.
  
  

9. What are continuous and intermittent (partial) reinforcement? Which is better for initial and long-term learning?

• Continuous reinforcement: You get a reward every time you do the behavior (good for learning something new).
  
  

• Intermittent reinforcement: You only get a reward sometimes (better for making behavior last longer over time).
  
  

10. What are the schedules of reinforcement (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval)?

• Fixed-ratio: Reward after a set number of times (e.g., every 5th time).
  
  

• Variable-ratio: Reward after a random number of times (like slot machines).
  
  

• Fixed-interval: Reward after a set amount of time (e.g., every 10 minutes).
  
  

• Variable-interval: Reward after a random amount of time (e.g., sometimes after 5 mins, sometimes 12 mins).
  
  

11. What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? What is the overjustification effect?

• Intrinsic motivation: Doing something because you enjoy it.
  
  

• Extrinsic motivation: Doing something for a reward.
  
  

• Overjustification effect: When too many rewards make you stop enjoying something you used to do just for fun.
  
  

Observational Learning

1. What is observational learning?

• Observational learning means learning by watching what other people do.
  
  

• It’s like learning how to do something just by seeing someone else do it.
  
  

• It includes modeling, which means copying or imitating what someone else does.
  
  

2. How did Bandura study observational learning?

• Bandura did a famous experiment using a Bobo doll (an inflatable clown toy).
  
  

• He showed kids a video of adults being aggressive (hitting or yelling) at the doll.
  
  

• Then, when the kids played with the doll, they copied the same aggressive behavior.
  
  

• He also tested what happens when kids watch nonviolent videos (like sports). Those kids were less aggressive afterward.
  
  

• This showed that watching violence can make kids act more violently.
  
  

• He also found that watching helpful behavior (called prosocial behavior) made kids more likely to help others too.
  
  

Memory

1. What are encoding, storage, and retrieval?

• Encoding: Taking in information and turning it into a memory.
  
  

• Storage: Keeping that memory saved over time.
  
  

• Retrieval: Bringing that memory back when you need it .
  
  

2. What are sensory, short-term, and long-term memory?

• Sensory memory: A super quick snapshot of what you just saw or heard (only lasts for a second).
  
  

• Short-term memory: Holds info you’re aware of for about 20–30 seconds (like remembering a phone number).
  
  

• Long-term memory: Stores info for a long time—possibly forever, and it has unlimited space .
  
  

3. What are explicit and implicit memory?

• Explicit memory: Things you remember on purpose (like facts or personal events).
  
  

• Implicit memory: Things you remember without realizing it (like how to ride a bike) .
  
  

3.1 What are semantic and episodic memory?

• Semantic memory: Memory of facts or general knowledge (like “Paris is the capital of France”).
  
  

• Episodic memory: Memory of things that happened to you (like your last birthday party) .
  
  

4. What are maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

• Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating something over and over without thinking about it (like a phone number).
  
  

• Elaborative rehearsal: Thinking about what the info means to help remember it better .
  
  

5. What are levels of processing and how do they relate to memory?

• Levels of processing: How deeply you think about something affects how well you remember it.
  
  

  • Shallow: Just noticing surface details (like if a word is in capital letters).
    
    

  • Deep: Thinking about the meaning (like using a word in a sentence) .
    
    

6. What are context-dependent and state-dependent memory?

• Context-dependent memory: You remember things better when you’re in the same place you learned it.
  
  

• State-dependent memory: You remember things better when you’re in the same mood or physical state (like tired or happy) as when you learned it .
  
  

7. What are anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

• Anterograde amnesia: Can’t form new memories after a brain injury.
  
  

• Retrograde amnesia: Can’t remember things from before the injury .
  
  

8. Is eyewitness memory reliable?

• Not always: People’s memories can be changed or influenced by how questions are asked.
  
  

  • Example: Asking “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” can make someone remember it as more violent than it was
    
    

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

1. What is the representativeness heuristic?

• It’s when we judge something based on how much it looks or acts like a typical example of a category.
  
  

• Example: Thinking someone wearing a lab coat is a doctor, even if they’re not.
  
  

• Problem: We ignore how common or rare something actually is (base-rate fallacy).
  
  

2. What is the availability heuristic?

• It’s when we make decisions based on how easily we can think of examples.
  
  

• The more memorable or recent something is, the more likely we think it is.
  
  

• Example: Thinking plane crashes happen often because you saw one on the news recently.
  
  

3. What is the simulation heuristic (counterfactual thinking)?

• It’s when we imagine different outcomes to a situation that already happened.
  
  

• These “what if” thoughts affect how we feel about the situation.
  
  

• Example: Feeling worse about missing a bus by 1 minute than by 10 minutes because it feels like you could’ve changed the outcome.
  
  

4. What is the perseverance effect (belief perseverance)?

• It means we tend to hold on to our beliefs even when we’re shown proof that they’re wrong.
  
  

• Example: Still believing a myth after being shown facts that disprove it.
  
  

What is a confirmation bias?

• It’s when we only look for or pay attention to information that supports what we already believe.
  
  

• We ignore or question anything that goes against our beliefs.
  
  

5. What is stereotype threat?

• It’s the fear of confirming a negative stereotype about your group.
  
  

• That fear can actually mess with your performance.
  
  

• Example: A girl might do worse on a math test if she’s reminded of the stereotype that “girls aren’t good at math.”
  
  

6. What are fixed and growth mindsets? Which results in more effort and persistence?

Fixed mindset:

• Believes ability is something you’re born with and can’t change.
  
  

• If you fail, you might just give up.
  
  

Growth mindset:

• Believes ability can be improved with effort and learning.
  
  

• More likely to keep trying after failure.
  
  

Which results in more effort and persistence?

• Growth mindset – because you believe you can always get better with practice.
  
  

Motivation and Emotion

1. What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

• It’s a list that shows the different types of needs people have, starting from the most basic (like food and safety) to more complex ones (like love and confidence).
  
  

• The idea is you need to meet the basic needs first before you can focus on the higher ones.
  
  

1. What is self-actualization?

• It’s the top level in Maslow’s hierarchy.
  
  

• It means becoming your best self—doing what you’re meant to do and feeling fulfilled in life.
  
  

2. What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

• First, your body reacts (like your heart races or you cry).
  
  

• Then, you feel the emotion (you feel scared or sad after your body reacts).
  
  

• Example: You see a bear, your heart pounds, then you feel fear.
  
  

3. What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

• Your body and your emotions happen at the same time.
  
  

• Example: You see a bear, and at the same time, your heart races and you feel fear.
  
  

4. What is Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion?

• Step 1: Your body reacts (heart races).
  
  

• Step 2: You think about why your body is reacting.
  
  

• Then, based on that, you feel an emotion.
  
  

• Example: Heart pounds + you think “I’m on a scary bridge” = you feel fear.
  
  

• But if you think “I’m in love” = you feel excitement instead.
  
  

Social Psychology

1. What are internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions?

• Internal (dispositional) attribution:
  
  

  • We think someone acted a certain way because of their personality or who they are.
    
    

  • Example: “She’s rude because she’s just a mean person.”
    
    

• External (situational) attribution:
  
  

  • We think someone acted that way because of the situation they were in.
    
    

  • Example: “She’s rude because she had a bad day.”
    
    

2. What is the fundamental attribution error?

• When we see someone do something, we usually blame their personality instead of considering the situation.
  
  

• Example: If someone cuts us off in traffic, we assume they’re a jerk—not that they might be rushing to an emergency.
  
  

3. What was Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment?

• A study by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1971.
  
  

• College students were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards in a fake prison.
  
  

• The guards became abusive, and the prisoners became passive and stressed.
  
  

• It showed that people can change their behavior based on their social role and the situation they’re in.
  
  

4. What is cognitive dissonance?

• It’s the uncomfortable feeling we get when our actions don’t match our beliefs.
  
  

• To feel better, we often change our attitude to match our behavior.
  
  

• Example: If you lie but think lying is bad, you might say, “Well, it was just a small lie,” to make yourself feel better.
  
  

5. What are normative and informational social influence?

• Normative social influence:
  
  

  • We go along with others because we want to be liked or fit in.
    
    

  • Example: Pretending to like a TV show because your friends love it.
    
    

• Informational social influence:
  
  

  • We follow others because we think they know better or have the right answer.
    
    

Example: Picking the same answer as others in class because you’re not sure.

Social Psychology 

1. What is cooperative interdependence?

• When people or groups need each other to succeed, and their success depends on working together.
  
  

1. How did Sherif reduce prejudice in the Robber’s Cave study?

• He had two rival groups work on tasks that required cooperation to succeed (e.g., fixing a broken water tank).
  
  

• This forced them to depend on each other, which helped reduce prejudice between them.
  
  

2. What is a jigsaw classroom?

• A classroom setup where:
  
  

  • Students are placed in small groups.
    
    

  • Each student learns a unique piece of the lesson.
    
    

  • They must work together and share their pieces to understand the full topic.
    
    

• Goal: Reduce competition and increase teamwork and understanding.
  
  

2. What is the drive theory of aggression?

• Aggression comes from internal tension or motivation that builds up from frustration.
  
  

• Situations that make us mad or upset push us toward being aggressive.
  
  

1. What is catharsis? Does it reduce aggression?

• Catharsis: The idea that letting out anger (like yelling or hitting something) will reduce future aggression.
  
  

• Research says: No, it doesn’t work.
  
  

  • Instead, acting aggressively can make people more aggressive later.
    
    

3. What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

• When we get frustrated, we are more likely to become aggressive.
  
  

• Example: If your goal is blocked (like losing a game unfairly), you might lash out.
  
  

4. How do similarity and proximity predict liking?

• Similarity: We tend to like people who are like us (in values, hobbies, etc.).
  
  

• Proximity: We like people who are physically close or around us often (like classmates or neighbors).
  
  

5. What is the mere exposure effect?

How has this been demonstrated in studies?

• Mere exposure effect: The more we are exposed to something or someone, the more we tend to like it.
  
  

• In studies:
  
  

  • College students were shown faces multiple times.
    
    

  • The more they saw a face, the more they liked it.
    
    

  • Even mirror images of faces that were familiar were liked more.
    
    

6. What is the bystander effect? Why does this occur?

• Bystander effect: When more people are around, individuals are less likely to help someone in need.
  
  

• It happens because of:
  
  1. Diffusion of responsibility
  
  

  • People think: “Someone else will help,” so they don’t feel responsible.
    
    

• 2. Pluralistic ignorance
  
  

  • If no one else looks concerned, people assume everything is fine—even if it’s not.
    
    

• 3. Evaluation apprehension
  
  

  • People fear being judged or embarrassed for helping, especially if they’re unsure whether help is needed.
    
    

Personality 

1. What is the psychoanalytic perspective of personality? What 2 factors did Freud emphasize in the development of personality?

• Explains personality through unconscious thoughts and desires.
  
  

• Freud emphasized:
  
  

  1. Unconscious processes (hidden memories, wishes).
     
     

  2. Early childhood experiences.
     
     

2. What is the unconscious?

• Thoughts, memories, and desires we’re not aware of, but that still affect how we think and act.
  
  

3. What are the id, ego, and superego?

• Id: Your basic urges (hunger, pleasure) — wants things right now.
  
  

• Ego: Balances the id and superego — waits for the right time to act.
  
  

• Superego: Your moral side — knows what’s right and wrong.
  
  

4. What are Freud’s first 3 psychosexual stages?

1. Oral stage (birth–18 months)
   
   

   • Babies explore the world through their mouth.
     
     

   • Linked to trust and dependence.
     
     

2. Anal stage (18 months–3 years)
   
   

   • Kids learn to control bathroom habits.
     
     

   • Linked to attitudes about order and control.
     
     

3. Phallic stage (3–6 years)
   
   

   • Kids become aware of genitals.
     
     

   • Includes Oedipus complex.
     
     

1. What are oral and anal fixations?

• Oral fixation: Stuck in the oral stage — might show in habits like smoking or nail biting.
  
  

• Anal fixation: Stuck in the anal stage — may be overly neat or messy.
  
  

3. What is the Oedipus complex?

• When a boy wants an exclusive relationship with his mother.
  
  

• He eventually starts identifying with his dad instead.
  
  

5. What are Freud’s defense mechanisms?

1. Repression
   
   

   • Hiding painful thoughts deep in the unconscious.
     
     

2. Projection
   
   

   • Blaming others for your own unwanted feelings.
     
     

3. Rationalization
   
   

   • Making excuses to explain away uncomfortable behavior.
     
     

4. Displacement
   
   

   • Taking your feelings out on someone or something else.
     
     

5. Denial
   
   

   • Refusing to believe or accept something upsetting.
     
     

6. What is psychological determinism? What are Freudian slips?

• Psychological determinism: Everything we think or do has a cause.
  
  

• Freudian slips: “Slips of the tongue” that reveal hidden thoughts or wishes.
  
  

7. What are projective tests?

• Tests where you’re shown vague images and asked what you see — meant to uncover unconscious thoughts.
  
  

1. What is the Rorschach?
   
   

   • A test using inkblots to see what images you describe, revealing inner thoughts.
     
     

8. What is the humanistic perspective of personality?

• Focuses on personal growth and being your best self.
  
  

• Believes people are naturally good and want to improve.
  
  

1. What are Rogers’s concepts of empathy and unconditional positive regard?
   
   

   • Empathy: Truly understanding someone’s thoughts and feelings.
     
     

   • Unconditional positive regard: Accepting someone completely, without judgment.
     
     

9. What are the Big Five traits?

1. Openness – curious, creative
   
   

2. Conscientiousness – organized, dependable
   
   

3. Extraversion – outgoing, energetic
   
   

4. Agreeableness – kind, cooperative
   
   

5. Neuroticism – anxious, moody
   
   

Psychological Disorders

1. What is the DSM?

• A book used by doctors to diagnose mental disorders.
  
  

• Current version: DSM-5-TR (2022).
  
  

2. What is labeling theory? What was Rosenhan’s study?

• Labeling theory: Mental illness labels can be used by society to mark people as “different” or “deviant.”
  
  

• Rosenhan’s study: He and 7 others pretended to have schizophrenia and were admitted to mental hospitals to show how easy it was to be misdiagnosed.
  
  

3. What are anxiety disorders?

• Disorders where a person feels constant, intense, or frequent anxiety.
  
  

3.1 What is generalized anxiety disorder?

• Ongoing, intense anxiety about many things.
  
  

• Always feeling tense or afraid, even with no specific cause.
  
  

3.2 What is panic disorder? What are panic attacks?

• Panic disorder: Sudden episodes of extreme fear that seem to come out of nowhere.
  
  

• Panic attacks: These are the episodes—short bursts of intense fear or discomfort.
  
  

3.3 What are phobias?

• An extreme, irrational fear of a specific thing or situation (like flying or spiders).
  
  

3.4 What is social anxiety disorder?

• Fear of being judged or embarrassed in social or performance situations.
  
  

4. What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? What are obsessions and compulsions?

• A disorder where people have unwanted thoughts and feel the need to do certain actions over and over.
  
  

• Obsessions: Repeating thoughts that won’t go away.
  
  

• Compulsions: Actions someone feels they must do (like checking or cleaning repeatedly).
  
  

5. What is major depressive disorder?

• Deep sadness or hopelessness that doesn’t go away.
  
  

• Can happen without any obvious reason.
  
  

6. What is bipolar disorder?

• A disorder with extreme mood swings: depression and mania.
  
  

6.1 What is mania?

• A very “high” or excited state with too much energy and risky behavior.
  
  

7. What is schizophrenia?

• A serious mental disorder affecting thoughts, emotions, and senses.
  
  

7.1 What does it mean to have psychotic symptoms?

• Being out of touch with reality.
  
  

7.2 What are delusions and hallucinations?

• Delusions: Strong beliefs that aren’t true.
  
  

• Hallucinations: Seeing or hearing things that aren’t there.
  
  

7.3 What is disorganized speech?

• Talking in a way that doesn’t make sense or jumping between unrelated topics.
  
  

7.3.1 What is word salad?

• Jumbled, confusing speech—words mixed together in a way that doesn’t form a real sentence.
  
  

7.4 What are catatonic symptoms?

• Movement problems, like staying still for a long time or moving oddly.
  
  

7.5 What are positive and negative symptoms?

• Positive symptoms: Things added (like hallucinations).
  
  

• Negative symptoms: Things missing (like emotion or facial expressions).
  
  

8. What is dissociative identity disorder?

• A person has two or more different identities or personalities.
  
  

• Used to be called multiple personality disorder.
  
  

9. What are personality disorders?

• Long-term unhealthy patterns of thinking and behaving that affect relationships and life.
  
  

9.1 What is borderline personality disorder?

• Quick mood changes, unstable relationships, and fear of being left out or rejected.
  
  

9.2 What is narcissistic personality disorder?

• Thinking you’re better than others, needing constant praise, and bragging a lot.
  
  

THERAPY

1. What is psychoanalytic therapy?

• Psychoanalytic therapy (based on Freud) helps people understand unconscious thoughts that affect their behavior.
  
  

1. What is dream interpretation?

• Dream interpretation is analyzing dreams to uncover hidden thoughts or feelings from the unconscious mind.
  
  

2. What is free association?

• Free association is when a person says whatever comes to mind, without censoring, to uncover unconscious thoughts.
  
  

2. What is humanistic therapy? What are important qualities of Rogers’s person-centered therapy (e.g., unconditional positive regard)?

• Humanistic therapy focuses on helping people reach their full potential.
  
  

• Rogers’s person-centered therapy includes:
  
  

  • Empathy – the therapist understands the client’s feelings.
    
    

  • Unconditional positive regard – accepting the client without judgment.
    
    

  • Reflection – repeating or rephrasing what the client says to show understanding.
    
    

3. What is behavioral therapy?

• Behavioral therapy uses learning principles to change bad behaviors.
  
  

1. What are classical conditioning and operant conditioning methods?

• Classical conditioning methods involve learning through association (e.g., using exposure to reduce fear).
  
  

• Operant conditioning methods use rewards and punishments to shape behavior.
  
  

1. What is exposure therapy?

• Exposure therapy helps people face their fears so they stop avoiding them.
  
  

2. What is flooding?

• Flooding makes someone face their fear all at once, without gradual buildup.
  
  

3. What is systematic desensitization?

• Systematic desensitization slowly exposes a person to what they fear, while teaching them how to relax.
  
  

4. What is a token economy?

• Token economy gives rewards (like tokens) for good behavior, which can be traded for things like snacks or privileges.
  
  

4. What is cognitive therapy?

• Cognitive therapy focuses on changing harmful thoughts.
  
  

• It helps people recognize and question negative beliefs, especially automatic and irrational ones.
  
  

5. What is cognitive-behavioral therapy?

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines both cognitive and behavioral approaches.
  
  

• It works on changing both:
  
  

  • Negative thoughts
    
    

  • Unhealthy behaviors
    
    

6. Is psychotherapy effective?

• Yes, psychotherapy is more effective than no treatment.
  
  

• CBT has the most scientific support for being effective.
  
  

7. What drugs are used to treat schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder?

• Schizophrenia – Antipsychotic medications (reduce delusions/hallucinations).
  
  

• Anxiety – Anti-anxiety drugs (calm nerves and relax muscles).
  
  

• Depression – Antidepressants (especially SSRIs which affect serotonin).
  
  

• Bipolar disorder – Mood stabilizers like lithium; atypical antipsychotics are also used for manic episodes.
  
  

8. What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

• ECT uses a small electric current to cause a brief seizure in the brain.
  
  

• It is very effective for depression, especially when medication doesn’t work.
  
  

• Side effect: Memory loss can happen.
  
  

Stress and Coping

1. What is the life change approach to measuring stress? Is life change associated with health?

• Life change means big events (good or bad) that require you to adjust your life.
  
  

• Yes, life changes are linked to health—more changes can lead to illness.
  
  

2. What is the daily hassles approach to measuring stress? Are daily hassles associated with health?

• Daily hassles are small annoying things (like traffic or losing your keys) that still require energy to deal with.
  
  

• Yes, more daily hassles can lead to worse health.
  
  

3. What is perceived stress? Is it associated with health?

• Perceived stress is how stressed you feel—your personal view of how stressful something is.
  
  

• Yes, higher perceived stress is linked to poorer health.
  
  

4. What is Cannon’s fight-or-flight mechanism?

• When you feel threatened, your body reacts fast by getting ready to fight or run away (heart races, muscles tighten).
  
  

5. What is Selye’s general adaptation syndrome? What are the 3 stages?

• It’s the body’s way of handling stress over time.
  
  

  1. Alarm – You get a burst of energy to deal with the stress.
     
     

  2. Resistance – Your body tries to cope, but slowly wears down.
     
     

  3. Exhaustion – Your body runs out of energy and becomes vulnerable to illness.
     
     

6. What is the tend-and-befriend hypothesis?

• Instead of fighting or running, women may respond to stress by caring for others (tend) or seeking social support (befriend).
  
  

7. What are the indirect and direct effect models of stress and illness?

• Indirect model – Stress makes you do unhealthy things (like smoking or skipping sleep).
  
  

• Direct model – Stress physically harms your body (like increasing blood pressure), which leads to illness.
  
  

8. What are Type A and Type B behavior patterns? What is the toxic component of Type A?

• Type A: Competitive, tense, easily angered.
  
  

• Type B: Relaxed and calm.
  
  

• The toxic trait in Type A is hostility, which is linked to heart problems.
  
  

9. What are problem-focused and emotion-focused coping?

• Problem-focused: Trying to fix or change the stressful situation.
  
  

• Emotion-focused: Trying to feel better emotionally, even if the situation stays the same.
  
  

10. How is control related to health? What was Rodin and Langer’s (1976) “plant” study?

• More control over your life = better health and lower stress.
  
  

• In the plant study, elderly people who had control over taking care of a plant were healthier and happier.
  
  

10.1. What is perceived control?

• It’s your belief that you can influence what happens to you.
  
  

• Higher perceived control = better health.
  
  

11. How is optimism related to health? What are unrealistic optimism and defensive pessimism?

• Optimism (expecting good things) is generally linked to better health.
  
  

• Unrealistic optimism: Believing nothing bad will happen, even when it’s likely.
  
  

• Defensive pessimism: Expecting the worst but using that to motivate yourself to prepare.
  
  

12. What is the relation between social support and health? What are the potential mechanisms explaining this relation?

• Having strong social connections = better health.
  
  

• Why?
  
  

  • Helps you think more clearly (cognitive appraisal)
    
    

  • Encourages healthy habits
    
    

  • Affects your immune and stress systems (psychoneuroimmunology)
    
    

13. What is expressive writing? How is it related to health?

• Writing about your emotions and stressful experiences.
  
  

• It lowers stress and improves physical and mental health.
  
  

14. How are exercise, mindfulness, religiosity, gratitude, and acts of kindness related to stress and health?

• Exercise: Lowers stress, anxiety, and depression.
  
  

• Mindfulness: Helps you focus on the present; improves health and lowers stress.
  
  

• Religiosity: Going to religious services or finding strength in faith = better health.
  
  

• Gratitude: Noticing and being thankful = less stress.
  
  

• Acts of kindness: Doing nice things for others = lower stress.