History Test 8

In the Middle Ages, what was information about the natural world based on other than observations?

ancient authority

During what time period did humanists master the Greek and Latin language that led to access to the works of Archimedes and Plato being discovered?

Renaissance

What did the works of Archimedes & Plato show?

some ancient thinkers disagreed with Aristotle

What were three new developments that helped lead to new ways of thinking?

telescope, microscope, printing press

What role did mathematics play in the Scientific Revolution?

key to understanding navigation, military science, geography, the nature of the universe

List three areas of scientific breakthrough during the Scientific Revolution.

astronomy, the medical field, and chemistry

Describe the Ptolemaic System of the universe.

geocentric; universe existed as a series of concentric spheres; earth was fixed and motionless; other planets rotate around earth; moon, mercury, venus, sun, etc.; 10th sphere was the prime mover that moves itself & the other spheres; beyond 10th was heaven

How was the heliocentric model different from the Ptolemaic System?

put sun at the center w/all planets (including earth) spinning/rotating around it

The teachings of who dominated medicine in the Late Middle Ages?

Galen

How did Galen study human anatomy?

animals

What does the term "inductive reasoning" mean?

start w/analyzing the particular an then move to the general

How does the scientific method work?

free mind of biases, start with detailed facts that lead to general reasoning, observe natural events, propose a hypothesis, and make more observations/experiments

Who was Ptolemy?

greatest astronomer of antiquity; philosophers of the Middle Ages used Aristotle, Christianity, and his ideas to create a model of the universe

Who was Nicolaus Copernicus

mathematician who created the heliocentric model - his book was called "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

Who was Johannes Kepler?

German mathematician who advanced the idea of the heliocentric model

Who was Galileo?

found mountains on the moon, four moons surrounding Jupiter, and discovered sunspots - first European to make regular observations using a telescope - made Catholic Church angry

Who was Isaac Newton?

defines three laws of motion; writer of "Principia"; essentially creates a picture of the universe as a machine w/natural laws

Who was Vesalius?

one of two individuals who contributed the most to medicine in the 16th century; he dissected human bodies & gave accurate descriptions of internal organs; heart = beginning of blood circulation

Who was Blaise Pascal?

experimented with liquids under pressure - the new knowledge he discovered led to the development of the syringe and the hydraulic press

Who was Robert Boyle?

chemistry experimenter; studied properties of gasses; his law states that a volume of gas varies with the pressure exerted on it

Who was Antoine Lavosier?

helped develop the system for naming the elements; founder of modern chemistry

Who was Margaret Cavendish?

wrote "Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy"; she was critical of the belief that humans through science were masters of nature; published under her own name instead of anonymously

Who was Maria Winkelmann

German astronomer who made the discovery of a comet; rejected from Berlin Academy b/c she was a woman

Who was Descartes?

17th century French philosopher who considered doubt and uncertainty; wrote "Discourse on Method"; accepted only what his reason said was true; "I think, therefore I am"

Who was Francis Bacon?

English philosopher (NOT A SCIENTIST) who created inductive reasoning

What is the Enlightenment and how does the scientific method apply to it?

18th century philosophical movement; enlightenment thinkers thought the scientific method could be used to make society better

Describe the philosophes.

thinkers of the Enlightenment who had varying professions; most were middle class/nobles; mostly french; goal was to change the world

According to Adam Smith, what were the three roles of government?

protect society from invasion, defend citizens from injustice, keep up public works (roads/canals/things individuals couldn't afford alone)

What were three ways in which the ideas of Enlightenment spread?

books, magazines/newspapers, salons (fancy meetings b/w rich people)

Which palace influenced other European rulers which inspired then to build their own grand residences?

Versailles

Describe the baroque style.

grandeur and power

Describe the rococo style.

grace & charm; sadder undertones; kinda nature-y

Who was John Locke?

major influence on Enlightenment thinkers; said people were born with a tabula rasa (blank mind); proposer of natural rights

Who was Montesquieu?

French noble who wrote "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748); goal was to find the natural laws that governed social & political relationships; three branches of gov. guy; checks & balances

Who was Voltaire?

came from a prosperous middle class family; criticized Christianity; strong belief in religious tolerance; championed idea of deism (based on Newton's world machine; said god created the universe, set it in motion, and then left it alone)

Who was Denis Diderot?

writer that covered many subjects; made the Encyclopedia; many articles in the Encyclopedia supported religious toleration; goal was to spread Enlightenment ideas

Who was Adam Smith?

founder of the modern social science of economics; felt individuals should be free to pursue their own self-interests; the state shouldn't interfere (laissez-faire); said gov. had 3 jobs (protect society from invasion, defend citizens from injustice, keep up public works)

Who was Rousseau?

most famous of the late Enlightenment period; believed that people adopted laws & gov. to help preserve their private property; social contract (all agree to follow general will/what is best for all)

Who was Mary Wollstonecraft?

English writer; made the strongest statement for the rights of women; often regarded as the founder of the modern women's rights movements; argued that if the power of the absolute monarch was wrong, then so was the power men had over women; women had ability to reason, so they should have the same rights

Who was John Wesley?

creator of a new religious movement called methodism, which influenced reforms like the abolition of the slave trade

What are seven natural rights that the philosophes believed in?

equality before the law, freedoms of religious worship, speech, press, assemble, the right to hold property and pursue happiness

What does the term "enlightened absolutism" mean?

rulers trying to govern using enlightenment principles

What three countries potentially had leaders that could have qualified as enlightened rulers?

Austria, Prussia, Russia

Aside from building up the military, what are two reasons why Prussia became a major power in the 18th century?

highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers; obedience, honor, and service to the king were highly valued

Describe the Prussian military. How were the nobles involved in the army?

army was the 4th biggest; nobles were officers in the army

What were three reforms that Frederick II instituted in Prussia? What is one thing that remained behind?

abolished use of torture (excluding treason & murder), granted freedoms of speech & press, allowed greater religious toleration; serfdom & the rigid social structure

Why was the Austrian Empire difficult to rule?

many nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures w/in the empire

Who took the Austrian throne in 1740?

Maria Theresa

What was Maria Theresa's (Austria) goal?

centralize & strengthen the state & improve conditions for serfs

Although Maria Theresa was not as open to reform, what did she accomplish?

improved conditions for the serfs

Maria Theresa's son Joseph II was more willing to follow the Enlightenment. Give 4 examples of this.

abolished serfdom, eliminated the death penalty, promoted equality of all before the law, and instituted religious reforms & toleration

In reality, Joseph II's reforms largely failed. What are four reasons for that?

alienated nobles by freeing serfs, alienated the Catholic Church w/religious reforms, serfs couldn't understand all of the changes, successors undid nearly all of his reforms

What happened to the last of the six weak successors to Peter the Great? Who took the throne?

often disposed by the palace guard, and one group of nobles murdered the last one; Catherine II

What is one example of Catherine II favoring reforms?

put in place a new law code recognizing equality of all before the law

Why didn't Catherine the Great do more? What effect did this have on peasants in Russia?

her success depended on the support of the nobles, so she favored them; this meant worse conditions for peasants

Who was Yemelyan Pugachov?

leader of a peasant rebellion (Russia)

What was one thing that Catherine does receive credit for? List the two areas in which this happens?

expanding Russia's borders - spread south to the Black Sea (defeated the Turks) & gained 50% of Poland's territory

Instead of being used for improving the life of their citizens, what did these "enlightened rulers" do with increased taxes? How did the philosophes react to this?

create armies and wage war; philosophes said war was waste of life & resources

A main concern during this time was to maintain the balance of power between nations. What does this mean?

states should have equal power so no one dominated Europe

What broke out in 1740 with regards to the Austrian throne? Which ruler took advantage of the confusion?

Charles VI died w/o a male heir, so his daughter took over (Maria Theresa); Frederick II of Prussia took advantage of confusion

Who does France support in the Austrian-Prussian conflict? What about Britain?

Prussia; Austria

What happened in Europe during the War of Austrian succession?

Prussia seized Silesia & France occupied Austrian territory

What happened in Asia during the War of Austrian succession?

France took Madras in India from Brits

What happened in North America during the War of Austrian succession?

Brits captured French fortress of Louisbourg

What happens to occupied territories after the War of Austrian Succession? What was the exception?

all are returns excluding Silesia

Maria Theresa had two goals following the War of Austrian Succession. What were they?

rebuild her army & separate France & Prussia

What were the two new rivalries that emerged following the War of Austrian Succession?

Britain vs. France

What happened to France & Prussia's relationship? Who joined with France & their new ally?

broke it off & France joined w/Austria and Russia

Even though initially successful in the Seven Years' War, why did Prussia get worn down?

attacked from 3 sides

Which ally of France & Austria exists the conflict, leading to a stalemate?

Russia

History repeats itself & all land is returned in Europe to rightful owners with the exception of what territory that Austria finally recognized as belonging to Prussia?

Silesia

What happened as a result of the fighting in India?

war - Brits won cuz they were persistent; Treaty of Paris in 1763 was signed, leaving Brits in control of India

Compare and contrast the British and French colonies in North America.

French had vast trading area (fur, leather, fish, timber), had a low population; Brits had 13 prosperously populated colonies on the eastern coast

What were the two major areas of conflict in the French & Indian War?

Gulf of St. Lawrence & Ohio River Valley

Who wins the French and Indian War? What was the name of the treaty that was signed in 1763 and what happened as a result of the treaty?

Britain; Treaty of Paris; gave Canada & lands east of Mississippi River to England & gave Spanish Florida to Britain, gave Louisiana to Spain

What were two results of the Glorious Revolution in Britain

English Bill of Rights, Parliament's right to make laws = affirmed (power shared b/w monarch & Parliament, the monarch chose ministers to guide Parliament)

Who does England unite with to create the United Kingdom

Scotland

Why did a German relative take over after the last Stuart ruler died?

they were the nearest relatives

What were two potential issues for the new German ruler of Britain?

doesn't speak English, doesn't know British gov. system

How did the growing middle class in Britain feel about trade and a British world empire?

favored it

How were the colonies in North America controlled in theory? What about reality?

theory - Board of Trade, Royal Council, Parliament; reality - had their own legislatures & largely acted independently

What were two reasons as to why Britain had to increase their revenue from the colonies?

cover cost of previous war, helped cover costs for the army stationed in the colonies

What was the first direct tax of the colonists? What did it require?

Stamp Act; printed materials have a stamp showing a tax was paid

Why didn't the repeal of the Stamp Act resolve the issues between the colonists and the British government?

more restrictions/taxes placed

What do the colonists form in response to other crises that happened in the 1770s?

Continental Congress - call to organize militias as well

Where did the fighting begin in the American Revolution?

Lexington & Concord, Massachusetts

What does the Second Continental Congress do in response to the fighting? Who served as commander in chief?

set up an army; George Washington

Why did Thomas Paine write "Common Sense"?

to help persuade the colonists against the Brits

What were three things included in "Common Sense"?

claimed monarchies were set up by taking power away from the people; labeled King George III a tyrant; said it was time to declare independence

What was approved on July 4, 1776 & who wrote it?

Declaration of Independence; Thomas Jefferson

List three "unalienable rights" according to the Declaration of Independence.

Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness

What is popular sovereignty? What can happen to a gov. that fails to uphold its citizens' rights?

governments exist due to the consent of the people; overthrown

Which European nation supported the colonists the most?

France

What are two things that the Treaty of Paris (1783) does?

formally ended war & recognized U.S. independence

Name the first constitution of the United States. Why was it scrapped?

Articles of Confederation; central gov. proved too weak

The new constitution set up a federal system. What does this mean?

national and state govs. share power; gov. separated into 3 branches - all had diff. powers and checked the others' power

List and describe the three branches of government according to the new constitution.

legislature - elected representative in 2 houses of congress; executive - president; judicial - supreme & lower courts

Who was the largest contributor for writing the Constitution?

James Madison

What was proposed during the negotiation process of ratifying the new constitution? How many were approved?

12 amendments; 10

List the rights protected by the Bill of Rights.

freedoms of: religion, speech, press, petition, assembly; right to bear arms; protection from unreasonable searches/arrests; Rights to: trial by jury, due process of law, protection of property rights