369 midterm

no

Lovers (Wayne)

wish to empower their audience and enlighten them—use ethics that forbids deception, half truths, or fabricated evidence

Nonverbal expectancy violations model

standing too close or touching a stranger

Belief-disconfirmation paradigm

Person confronted with info; inconsistent with held beliefs

the sophists

the first rhetoricians. Skeptical about the gods, their nature, and his ability to know them

Isocrates

major critic of Sophists. competitor of Plato as a teacher.

Plato

Aristotle’s Teacher. Ideal forms \n Absolute truth. Allegory of the Cave \n -World of sense perception \n -World of the good

Aristotle

defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”

Artistic proofs

invented by the orator’s knowledge, creativity, and judgment of what is appropriate in a situation

Inartistic proofs

the speaker merely used but did not invent— \n laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, and oaths

Aristotle’s Three Categories of Rhetoric

Political, Forensic & Epideictic

Political

involves ways and means, war and peace, national defence, imports and exports, and legislation

Forensic

prosecution and defense in legal system

Epideictic

eulogies or tributes

Aristotle, Three Classic Appeals

Ethos, Logos, Pathos

Ethos

character of credibility of speakers

Logos

the logic behind the ideas

Pathos

emotional or psychological appeals

Topos

was a pigeonhole in the mind where the speaker could find certain lines of argument. Compared to a lair where animals hide. part of invention or creative process. look for common ground with audiences.

Cicero

Wrote De invention. five canons of rhetoric.

5 canons of rhetoric

Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memorization & Delivery

Quintilian

roman, lifelong learning. resource for middles ages christian rhetoricians, institutes, ideal orator “a good man speaking well”

Augustine

taught hermeneutics & homiletics

hermeneutics

explanation and interpretation of scripture

homiletics

the art of writing and preaching sermons

George Campbell

Created philosophical groups to improve sermons. Local grammar and speech. Though conviction came from reason, but persuasion came from evoked feelings of audience

Richard Whately

Moved away from elocution and rhetoric of belles lettres. \n Believed persuasion depended first on argument and second upon exhortation, which stirred passions. Believed it is more important to have something worthwhile to say than to worry about how to say it.

Kenneth Burke

definition of persuasion

Burke’s definition of persuasion

You persuade a man only insofar as you can talk his language by speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, idea, identifying your ways with his

Burke’s View of Man

Symbol using animal (and symbol misusing animal) \n Inventor of the negative. Separated from his natural condition by instruments of his own making. Goaded by the spirit of hierarch

Burke’s Dramatistic Pentad

Act: what took place

Scene: setting of the act

Agent: who committed the act

Agency: the instruments used to commit the act

Purpose: motive for the action

Walter Fisher’s Narrative Theory

Argumentative theme \n Literary, aesthetic theme

Narratives

Come closer than argument to capturing the experience of \n the world. Works by suggestion, whereas argument requires inference and deliberation.

Jacques Ellul’s La Technique

Sociological perspective and stated that industrialized society saturates. Technological society destroys groups and gives the state power. Not a campaign but constant immersion

Propaganda Embraces Four Areas

Psychological action \n Psychological warfare \n Reeducation and brainwashing \n Public and human relations

Agitation propaganda

rebellious, calling for war

Integration propaganda

works slowly, gradually, and imperceptibly too condition the individual to accept social imperative. Social, political and religious.

Hugh Rank

worried about students’ inability to identify propaganda, \n created intensify/downplay model.

Strategies to intensify

repetition, association, and composition

Strategies to downplay

omission, diversion, and confusion

Michael Calvin McGee

Studied how mass consciousness and ideology are formed. Ideograph.

ideograph

Concepts that produce some degree of conformity in \n behaviour and beliefs or contain some ideological commitment. Are a vocabulary that unifies us collectively and separates us from others with different mother tongues (i.e., property, religion, liberty)

What is rhetoric about

persuasion

Demographics

audience characteristics— age, income, education, political party, religion, etc.

Psychographics

values, attitudes, and lifestyles (VALS) of groups of people

Interpersonal communication

two people talking face to face (dyads)—verbal and nonverbal feedback, intimate, immediate feedback

small groups

3 to 15 members who meet for social, work, educational, or other needs; communication compounded by numbers, personalities, task, and processes

Mass Media/communication

Are large in number, heterogeneous, anonymous, and have delayed feedback. Have layers of organization to create newspapers, magazines, books, radio and television \n broadcasts, and Internet sites to communicate with mass \n audiences.

credibility

believability of speakers. Includes intelligence, expertise, trustworthiness, similarity, likability, attractiveness, and dynamism

Initial ethos

based on status or reputation

Derived ethos

impression earned in speech

Terminal ethos

interaction between initial ethos and derived ethos

A. H. Maslow: Pyramid of Needs

consisted of *deficit* needs to be satisfied and *being* needs at the top \n ( Being needs ) \n • Self-actualization needs \n • Esteem needs \n • Belonging needs \n • Safety needs: shelter, order \n • Physiological needs: air, food, water, sex \n ( Deficit needs)

Vance Packard: Eight Hidden Needs

Underlying needs of people

\- Emotional security \n • Reassurance of worth \n • Ego gratification \n • Creative outlets \n • Love objects \n • Sense of power \n • Sense of roots \n • Immortality

Consistency Theories

attitudes and beliefs

Attitudes

Persuasion research what Elvis Presley is to rock-and-roll. A learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object

Beliefs

a person’s subjective thoughts that an object has a particular characteristic and that they assert a relationship between an object and a characteristic such as ‘This book is informative’”

Milton Rokeach

talks about beliefs. like an onion, with the most primitive ones at the core of individuals—four levels.

\- Beliefs about one’s self, one’s existence, and identity—most central beliefs \n • Shared beliefs about one’s existence and identity \n • Beliefs derived from other beliefs taught by authority figures but not experienced \n • Beliefs concerning matters of taste are arbitrar

opinions

evaluative beliefs expressed on a subject: “I like pizza”; “I hate squid”

Values

divided into instrumental and terminal types

Instrumental Values

a means to an end (education)

Terminal

an end in itself (life)

Habits

repeated patterns of behaviour that may contribute to a person’s persuasibility

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT)

developed in the 50s, recently revived. 4 Paradigms.

Free-choice paradigm

psych, doubt after making a decision—buyer’s remorse

Effort-justification paradigm

We appreciate things more when we sacrifice or earn them

Induced-compliance paradigm

Forced choice that required action that is contrary to attitudes or self-image

Role playing in persuasion (miller)

in counseling couples, what kind of persuasion happens when \n the two exchange roles and make up a script? Attitudes change

Counter-attitudinal advocacy (miller)

A pot smoker may be incentivized to become an advocate \n against pot smoking; through his action research, organization, delivery of his speech to Boy Scouts, he may change his own beliefs somewhat: “The greater the justification, the greater the reluctant self-persuasion”

Mere exposure theory

Familiarity tends to enhance liking—seeing a candidate’s name or likeness on an ad makes us unconsciously like him or her more. Explains entertainers who go into politics—Ventura, Bono, Schwarzenegger, Franken.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) Fishbein & Ajzen

2 components. Individual’s attitude toward behavior and evaluation of risks and benefits of behavior.

Subjective norms - evaluation of significant others.

Example: If you believe that your car will be damaged or stolen if you drive to school, you will take public transit, unless you can find a safe spot (benefit/risk evaluation); the subjective norm is that all your friends drive to school because all the cool students do.

social judgement theory (Shaif x2, Nebergall)

Positions exist along a continuum with an anchor point (receiver’s position) \n Anchor point is a perspective where subjects evaluate all positions on a subject \n Latitude of acceptance or rejection exists at extremes of continuum \n Persuasive messages should aim at area of noncommitment or ambivalence rather than \n latitude of rejection

Expectancy Violations Theories

3 theories. Language expectancy, nonverbal expectancy violations model & reinforcement expectancy theory.

Language expectancy theory

obscene language violates social norm

Reinforcement expectancy theory

acting outside gender roles or social expectancy—Hillary Clinton’s campaign debates violated the “feminine” style of \n communication

likelihood model (petty & Cacippo)

information is processed through two routes: central processing route and peripheral route

Central processing route

logical, reflective, and allows cognitive elaboration

Peripheral route

Short-cut forms of processing such as source’s attractiveness, number of arguments rather than quality of them, stereotypes or rule-of-thumb analysis

semantics

the study of relationships amount language, though and behaviour.

3 dimensions of words

cognition - thoughts

affect - emotion

behaviour - action

burke 4 kinds of words

nature, social-political realm

word of God

logolrogy - dictionaries, grammar

supernatural - god and others

language in politics

terministic screens, used for arguments, fetus vs unborn child

George Herbert Mead

Taught the theory of symbolic interaction

theory of symbolic interaction

Concept of “self” constructed through symbolic interaction of individuals in society \n Self has two interacting parts: the “I” and the “me

George Lakoff’s Analysis of Metaphors

Used for the mind and how the conceptual system of thought \n influences philosophical discourse. ignorance, deception, suspicion.

Metaphors__

influence our worldview: the cosmos, other people, relationship.

frame arguments, attitudes and beliefs

create social political reality ex nation as a family

Rush Limbaugh—Emotional Language

“ditto heads” Uses loaded words, labels, either/or choices (i.e., John F’n Kerry, Billory Clinton, Barry Obama, Femi-Nazis) \n “Third-person effect”: belief that others are influenced by media but not me

David Crystal

English is an ongoing project—ever changing, dynamic.

No “pure” language—change is inevitable.

Linguistic world = melting pot, not a salad bowl \n Humpty Dumpty, “The question is which is to be master—that’s all”

Walter Lippmann’s Public Philosophy

Common language unifies a nation \n Public philosophy is founded on natural law \n Lack of civility—descent into violence and tyranny \n Language is reservoir of culture

Three Axes of Words

Denotative: Dictionary meaning \n Connotative: Images and feelings words conjure—idiosyncratic \n Functional: What words do - name things, label, images grammar

language and race

BLM. Ossie Davis’s speech “English Language Is My Enemy”

Pejorative terms for blackness

Positive terms for whiteness

Language and Gender

Masculine vs. feminine model of communication: direct, confrontational, forceful, and logical vs. dependent, clinging, marital status primary—descriptive, not prescriptive, analysis

Hillary Clinton’s Rhetoric

language and gender. feminization of campaign, willing and not

Phaedrus (plato)

A dialog about the duality of man with a charioteer trying \n to control two competing horses: \n -White horse: pure, noble breed, characterized by reason and restraint \n -Black horse: strong, ignoble, at war for control of the soul \n Horses represent competition between reason and emotions to rule the soul

Aristotle’s View of Emotions

Intelligence, character, and good will are three things that garner belief in a speaker \n Must know psychology of mind, includes: anger, pity, fear, love, and hatred \n They distort judgme

Wayne Brockriede’s Sexual Metaphor

stated that speakers are rapists, seducers, or lovers.

Rapist (Wayne)

act unilaterally, objectify the audience, manipulate them, and \n put them down (superiority)

Seducers (Wayne)

similar to rapists but use charm or tricks to win victim’s assent

Claim or assertion

a statement that needs to be proven or supported to convince the audience

Proof

evidence + reasoning

Examples as Proof

real or hypothetical constructs

clarify a subject through detail

may be detailed or undetailed