AP PSYCHOLOGY: Cognition Vocab

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time - Example: The faintest sound you can hear in a quiet room.

Amplitude

The height of a wave that determines brightness in vision or loudness in hearing - Example: A bright light has a higher amplitude than a dim one.

Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference)

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time - Example: Noticing when your phone brightness slightly increases.

Intensity

The amount of energy in a wave, determined by amplitude, that influences brightness or loudness - Example: Turning up the volume increases the intensity of sound waves.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors receive stimulus energy from the environment - Example: Your eyes detecting light waves or your ears sensing sound vibrations.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus over time - Example: No longer noticing the smell of your perfume after a while.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense can influence another - Example: Food tasting bland when you have a stuffy nose.

Synesthesia

A condition where stimulation of one sense triggers an experience in another - Example: Seeing colors when hearing music notes.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another—turning sensory stimuli into neural signals - Example: Light waves being converted to neural impulses in the retina.

Wavelength

The distance between peaks of a wave; determines hue in vision and pitch in sound - Example: Short wavelengths appear blue, long wavelengths appear red.

Weber's Law

States that the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus - Example: It's easier to notice a 5-pound difference when lifting 10 pounds than when lifting 100 pounds.

Accommodation

The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus on near or far objects - Example: Your eyes adjusting focus when switching from looking at your phone to a distant sign.

Afterimages

Visual images that remain after the original stimulus is removed, due to photoreceptor fatigue - Example: Seeing a green spot after staring at a red image for a while.

Blind Spot

The area on the retina without photoreceptors where the optic nerve leaves the eye - Example: You can't see an object if it falls exactly in your blind spot.

Blindsight

The ability of some people with damage to the visual cortex to respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them - Example: A person who's "blind" can still detect movement even though they can't see it consciously.

Cones

Photoreceptors in the retina responsible for color vision and detail, functioning best in bright light - Example: Cones help you see a bright red apple clearly in daylight.

Dichromatism

A type of color blindness where only two of the three cone types function properly - Example: A person who can't distinguish between red and green hues.

Farsightedness (Hyperopia)

A vision condition where distant objects are seen more clearly than near ones because the image focuses behind the retina - Example: Having trouble reading a book but seeing the board clearly.

Ganglion Cells

Neurons in the retina that receive visual information from bipolar cells and send it to the brain via the optic nerve - Example: They transmit signals that your brain interprets as shapes and movement.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light on the retina by changing shape - Example: When you focus on a close object, the lens thickens to adjust the light.

Nearsightedness (Myopia)

A vision condition where close objects are seen clearly but distant ones appear blurry - Example: Having trouble reading road signs but not your phone screen.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory stating that color vision is based on pairs of opposing colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) - Example: After staring at a green image, you see a red afterimage.

Optic Nerve

The bundle of axons that carries visual information from the retina to the brain - Example: Damage to this nerve can cause partial or complete blindness.

Photoreceptors

Specialized cells in the retina (rods and cones) that convert light into neural signals - Example: They're the first step in the visual processing pathway.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological condition where people cannot recognize faces - Example: Someone with prosopagnosia may not recognize their own reflection.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing rods and cones - Example: The retina processes incoming light and sends signals to the brain.

Rods

Photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray and are essential for night and peripheral vision - Example: They help you see shapes in dim lighting.

Trichromatic Theory

Theory stating that the retina has three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue - Example: Seeing yellow results from combined stimulation of red and green cones.

Audition

The sense or act of hearing - Example: Recognizing your friend's voice in a noisy cafeteria.

Basilar Membrane

Structure inside the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound and holds the hair cells (receptors) - Example: It helps detect different sound frequencies.

Cochlea

A coiled, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations into neural signals - Example: Damage to the cochlea can cause hearing loss.

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea - Example: A ruptured eardrum or stiff ossicles.

Frequency

The number of sound waves per second, determining pitch - Example: A high-frequency wave sounds like a high note on a piano.

Frequency Theory

Theory that the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone, allowing us to sense its pitch - Example: A tone of 100 Hz causes the auditory nerve to fire 100 times per second.

Inner Ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs - Example: It converts vibrations into neural messages sent to the brain.

Middle Ear

Chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that amplify sound - Example: The hammer, anvil, and stirrup transmit vibrations to the cochlea.

Pitch

A tone's experienced highness or lowness, determined by frequency - Example: A whistle has a high pitch; a drum has a low pitch.

Place Theory

Theory that different sound frequencies stimulate different places on the basilar membrane - Example: High pitches activate areas near the beginning of the cochlea.

Semicircular Canals

Three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear that detect head movement and help with balance - Example: They help you stay balanced when you spin or turn quickly.Sensorineural Deafness Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or auditory nerve - Example: Prolonged exposure to loud music can cause this type of hearing loss.

Sound Localization

The ability to determine where a sound is coming from - Example: Hearing a dog bark behind you and turning in that direction.

Gate Control Theory

Theory that the spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain - Example: Rubbing a stubbed toe can reduce the feeling of pain.

Gustation

The sense of taste - Example: Recognizing that a lemon is sour.

Kinesthesis

The sense of body position and movement of muscles, tendons, and joints - Example: Touching your nose with eyes closed relies on kinesthesis.

Oleogustus

The taste for fatty foods - Example: Sensing the fattiness in fried chicken.

Olfactory System

The sensory system for smell - Example: Smelling fresh bread in a bakery.

Phantom Limb

The sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still present - Example: Feeling pain in a leg that was amputated.

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by animals or humans that affect the behavior of others - Example: Certain pheromones can attract mates.

Supertasters

People with heightened taste sensitivity, especially to bitter flavors - Example: Finding coffee extremely bitter while others find it mild.

Taste Receptors

Chemical-sensitive cells on the tongue that detect five basic tastes - Example: Receptors detect salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami flavors.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of balance and body position based on fluid in the inner ear - Example: Keeping your balance while riding a bike.

Volley Theory

Theory that neurons fire in rapid succession to produce a combined frequency matching the sound - Example: Multiple neurons firing together perceive a 4000 Hz tone.

Warm/Cold Receptors (Temperature Sense)

Sensory receptors in the skin that detect temperature changes - Example: Feeling heat when touching a stove or coolness when touching ice.

Apparent Movement

The illusion of movement created when stationary objects are shown in quick succession - Example: A flipbook or movie appears to move even though it's a sequence of still images.

Attention

The focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus while ignoring others - Example: Listening to your teacher while tuning out classroom noise.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes to perceive distance - Example: Retinal disparity helps you judge how far away a basketball is when catching it.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that starts with sensory input and builds up to the brain's interpretation - Example: Recognizing a song by listening carefully to each note before realizing what it is.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice a change in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere - Example: Not noticing when your friend gets a haircut during a conversation.

Closure

The tendency to fill in gaps in an incomplete image to perceive it as a whole - Example: Seeing a full circle even when parts are missing in a dotted outline.Cocktail Party Effect The ability to focus on one voice among many while filtering out background noise - Example: Hearing your name across a noisy room instantly grabs your attention.

Convergence

A binocular cue where the eyes turn inward as an object gets closer - Example: Crossing your eyes slightly to focus on a pencil held near your face.

Figure and Ground

The organization of visual fields into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground) - Example: Seeing words (figure) on a white page (ground).

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological approach emphasizing that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of its parts - Example: You perceive a full face, not just separate eyes, nose, and mouth.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere - Example: Missing a person in a gorilla suit walking through a basketball game when counting passes.

Interposition

A monocular cue where one object blocking another is perceived as closer - Example: A cat in front of a chair looks nearer than the chair itself.

Linear Perspective

A monocular cue based on parallel lines appearing to converge in the distance - Example: Train tracks seem to meet at the horizon.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that require only one eye to perceive distance - Example: Relative size or texture gradient helps you judge how far an object is.

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to recognize an object as the same despite changes in lighting, distance, or angle - Example: A door is still perceived as rectangular even when viewed from an angle.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive something in a certain way based on expectations or experiences - Example: Expecting to see a face in clouds after being told to look for one.

Proximity

The tendency to group nearby objects together in perception - Example: Seeing three pairs of lines instead of six individual ones because they're close together.

Relative Clarity

A monocular cue where hazy objects are perceived as farther away - Example: Distant mountains look blurrier than nearby trees.

Relative Size

A monocular cue where smaller images on the retina are seen as farther away - Example: People in the back row of a photo look smaller but aren't actually tiny.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue where the difference between images from each eye provides depth information - Example: Holding your finger close to your face and noticing it "moves" when alternating eyes.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information - Example: Using your "restaurant schema" to know you order before eating.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others - Example: Reading a book in a noisy café and tuning out the chatter.

Similarity

The tendency to group objects that are similar together - Example: Seeing a row of circles and a row of squares instead of one mixed group.

Texture Gradient

A monocular cue where closer objects appear more detailed and textured than distant ones - Example: Seeing bricks in the foreground more clearly than those far away.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, or expectations - Example: Reading messy handwriting and recognizing the words based on context.

Apparent Movement

The illusion of movement created when stationary objects are shown in quick succession - Example: A flipbook or movie appears to move even though it's a sequence of still images.