Foundations, Evolution, and Challenges of Liberalism

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering foundational ideologies, key philosophers, historical events, economic systems, political structures, and major critiques related to liberalism and its alternatives.

Collectivism

An ideology that prioritizes group goals, cooperation, and equality over individual interests.

Individualism

An ideology that emphasizes individual rights, self-interest, and personal freedom.

Ideology

A coherent set of beliefs and values about how society and government should be organized.

Classical Liberalism

Early liberal belief in natural rights, limited government, and free-market economics.

Thomas Hobbes

17th-century English philosopher who wrote Leviathan. Believed humans are naturally selfish and prone to conflict. To avoid chaos, people must surrender most freedoms to an absolute authority (a monarch) in exchange for order and protection — this is his version of the social contract.Hobbes argued that without such authority, life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." His ideas laid the groundwork for modern political philosophy.

John Locke

English Enlightenment thinker who argued that people are born with natural rights (life, liberty, property) that governments must protect. Believed governments only have legitimacy through the consent of the governed; citizens have the right to rebel if rulers violate their rights. Influenced liberal democracy and the U.S. Declaration of Independence.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French philosopher who emphasized the general will — the collective good above individual interests. Advocated for a social contract where citizens willingly give up some freedoms so laws reflect the majority’s will. Influenced ideas of democracy and equality during the French Revolution.

Montesquieu

French Enlightenment thinker who promoted the separation of powers in government (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming tyrannical. His ideas heavily influenced modern constitutions, including the U.S. system of checks and balances.

Economic Spectrum

Range from command economies on the left to free-market economies on the right.

Renaissance

Rebirth of classical Greek/Roman ideas. Encouraged humanism, art, science, and individual potential. Helped shift focus from religion and tradition toward reason and human achievement.

Enlightenment

(17th–18th century) – Intellectual movement promoting reason, secularism, progress, and natural rights. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau challenged absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings.

Liberal Democracy

Political system combining majority rule with protection of individual rights and freedoms, rule of law, free/fair elections, and checks on power. Rooted in Enlightenment ideals.

Social Contract

Agreement where people give up some freedom for government protection of rights.

Magna Carta

1215 charter that limited the English monarch and advanced rule of law.

French Revolution

1789 uprising that overthrew monarchy and proclaimed liberty and equality.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

French revolutionary document affirming universal rights and equality.

American Revolution

Colonial revolt (1775-1783) that rejected British rule in favor of self-government.

Declaration of Independence

1776 statement asserting colonial freedom and natural rights.

Adam Smith

Economist who championed capitalism and free markets in "Wealth of Nations."

Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith’s 1776 work advocating laissez-faire capitalism and self-interest.

Karl Marx

Co-author of the "Communist Manifesto" who critiqued capitalism and promoted communism.

Friedrich Engels

Marx’s collaborator on the "Communist Manifesto" and analysis of class struggle.

Communist Manifesto

1848 pamphlet calling for proletarian revolution and classless society.

Haudenosaunee Confederacy

Indigenous alliance guided by the Great Law of Peace, stressing equality and consensus.

Great Law of Peace

Haudenosaunee constitution emphasizing peace, equity, and participatory decision-making.

Mercantilism

Economic policy where colonies serve the financial interests of the mother country.

Capitalism

System based on private ownership, profit motive, and competition.

Laissez-faire Capitalism

Form of capitalism advocating zero government interference in markets.

John Stuart Mill

Liberal philosopher who defended individual liberty and protection from majority tyranny.

Rule of Law

Principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to the same legal rules.

Industrial Revolution

18th-19th century shift to mechanized production, triggering social and economic change.

Modern Liberalism

Branch of liberalism supporting limited government intervention for social welfare.

Factory Acts

19th-century British laws improving industrial working conditions.

Labour Unions

Worker organizations formed to secure better wages, hours, and conditions.

Welfare State

Government system that provides social services like health care and pensions.

Robert Owen

Utopian socialist who promoted cooperative communities and worker welfare.

Charles Fourier

Utopian socialist advocating phalansteries—self-sufficient, cooperative societies.

Socialism

Ideology seeking economic equality through public ownership or regulation.

Marxism

Theory that history is driven by class struggle leading to a proletarian revolution.

Democratic Socialism

Blend of democratic governance with extensive social programs and regulation.

Great Depression

Global economic collapse of the 1930s prompting calls for state intervention.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)

U.S. president whose New Deal expanded government role to combat the Depression.

John Maynard Keynes

Economist advocating government spending to manage economic cycles.

Quiet Revolution

1960s Quebec movement for secularization and modernization.

Parti Québécois

Quebec political party promoting sovereignty and cultural protection.

Soviet Communism

One-party state with a command economy and elimination of private property.

Leninism

Vanguard party theory guiding the Bolshevik revolution and early USSR.

Bolsheviks

Russian revolutionary group that seized power in 1917 under Lenin.

Stalinism

Authoritarian Soviet system marked by purges, collectivization, and terror.

Doukhobors

Pacifist Russian sect in Canada rejecting government authority and property laws.

Aboriginal Self-Government

Efforts by Indigenous peoples to regain autonomy from imposed liberal systems.

Nazi Fascism

Extreme nationalist, anti-liberal ideology under Hitler’s Germany.

Terror and Force

Nazi use of SS and Gestapo to suppress dissent.

Youth Movements

Hitler Youth organizations indoctrinating German children with fascist ideals.

Propaganda

Systematic dissemination of biased information to shape public opinion.

Scapegoating

Blaming a target group (e.g., Jews) for societal problems.

Racial Superiority

Nazi belief in Aryan dominance over other races.

Egalitarianism

Philosophy advocating equality of outcome for all members of society.

Equal Opportunity

Principle that everyone should have the same chances to succeed.

Command Economy

Economic system where the state makes all production and distribution decisions.

Free-Market Economy

System where prices and production are determined by private competition.

Mixed Economy

Blend of market forces with government regulation and social programs.

Environmentalism

Movement seeking protection of the natural environment, sometimes opposing pure market liberalism.

Extremism

Advocacy of radical measures, often violent, against existing systems.

Chicago School

Economic school led by Milton Friedman promoting deregulation and free markets.

Milton Friedman

Chicago economist arguing for minimal government and monetary control.

Reaganomics

U.S. policies under Ronald Reagan favoring tax cuts and deregulation.

Thatcherism

U.K. policies under Margaret Thatcher emphasizing privatization and market freedom.

Neo-Conservatism

Political stance advocating traditional values and market-oriented policies.

Illiberalism

Regimes that appear democratic but restrict political freedoms and rights.

Authoritarianism

System where power is concentrated in a leader or small group with limited freedoms.

Democracy

Government in which power ultimately rests with the people.

Direct Democracy

Form where citizens vote directly on policy decisions.

Representative Democracy

Citizens elect officials to legislate on their behalf.

Representation by Population

Allocation of legislative seats proportional to population size.

First Past the Post

Electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins a seat.

Proportional Representation

Electoral system allocating seats based on each party’s vote share.

Plebiscite

Non-binding popular vote on a specific question.

Referendum

Binding popular vote on a legislative proposal or constitutional change.

Consensus Decision-Making

Process seeking agreement by all participants, often used in Indigenous governance.

Minority Tyranny

Situation where a small group holds disproportionate power over the majority.

Absolute Monarchy

Rule by a king or queen with unchecked authority.

Military Dictatorship

Government controlled by military leaders without democratic legitimacy.

1917 Conscription Crisis

Canadian conflict over compulsory military service opposed by French Canadians.

War Measures Act

Canadian law allowing suspension of civil liberties during emergencies.

Emergencies Act

1988 law replacing War Measures Act, adding parliamentary oversight.

Anti-Terrorism Act (Canada)

2001 legislation expanding surveillance and security powers post-9/11.

USA PATRIOT Act

U.S. law enhancing surveillance and law-enforcement powers after 9/11.

Political Participation

Citizen involvement in politics through voting, protesting, or running for office.

Humanitarianism

Ethic of promoting human welfare and rights globally.

Civil Disobedience

Peaceful lawbreaking to protest injustice (e.g., Gandhi, MLK).

Protest Movements

Collective actions (e.g., Vietnam War protests) challenging government policies.

Civil Rights Movement

U.S. struggle against racial segregation led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr.

Women’s Liberation

Movement seeking gender equality in rights and opportunities.

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

1982 constitutional document guaranteeing individual liberties in Canada.

Quebec Charter

Provincial charter protecting Quebecers’ rights and cultural values.

Multiculturalism Act

1988 Canadian law promoting cultural diversity and equality.

Checks and Balances

U.S. system where executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit each other.

Party Solidarity

Canadian parliamentary norm requiring members to vote with their party.

Cuba under Castro

Communist one-party state with a command economy and limited political freedoms.