Nationalism in Europe

Who prepared the series of prints visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’?

Frédéric Sorrieu (French artist, 1848)

What does the shattered remains of absolutist symbols in Sorrieu’s print represent?

The destruction of absolute monarchies and the birth of liberty.

Define absolutist.

A system of rule with no restraints on the power exercised by the ruler.

What was the first clear expression of nationalism in Europe?

French Revolution (1789)

Name the tricolour flag adopted by France after the revolution.

Blue, white, and red.

Who described a nation as “a daily plebiscite”?

Ernst Renan

What did the Napoleonic Code abolish?

Privileges based on birth and established equality before the law.

What did Napoleon do to improve administration?

Simplified divisions, abolished feudal system, freed peasants, improved transport and communication.

Why did people later turn hostile to Napoleon’s rule?

High taxes, censorship, and forced army conscription.

What type of empire was the Habsburg Empire?

A multi-national, multi-lingual empire under autocratic monarchy.

Which three dominant groups lived in the Habsburg Empire?

Germans, Magyars (Hungarians), and Slavs.

Who formed the dominant class in Europe before the rise of nationalism?

The landed aristocracy

What was the new social group that emerged due to industrialisation?

The middle class — industrialists, businessmen, professionals.

What does ‘liberalism’ mean?

Freedom for the individual and equality before the law.

What does the latin word ‘liber’ mean?

Free

Who had political rights in revolutionary France?

Property-owning men only.

When was the Zollverein formed? Who initiated it?

1834, Prussia.

What did the Zollverein do?

Abolished tariff barriers and unified German economies.

What is conservatism?

Belief in preserving traditional institutions and customs.

When and where was the Congress of Vienna held?

1815, Vienna (Austria).

Who hosted the Congress of Vienna?

Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

What did the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 aim to do?

Restore monarchies and create a conservative order.

Who were the key powers in the Congress of Vienna?

Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

What was restored in France after Napoleon’s fall?

Bourbon Dynasty

What is censorship?

→ Control over publication of books, newspapers, plays, etc.

Who founded Young Italy?

Guiseppe Mazzini

What was Mazzini’s goal?

To unify Italy into a single democratic republic.

What was the name of Mazzini’s second organisation?

Young Europe

Who called Mazzini “the most dangerous enemy of our social order”?

Metternich

When did the Greek struggle for independence begin?

1821

Which empire ruled Greece before independence?

Ottoman empire

Who supported the Greek struggle?

Western Europeans, especially poets like Lord Byron.

When was Greece recognised as an independent nation?

→ Treaty of Constantinople, 1832.

What was Romanticism?

A cultural movement that emphasised emotions, folk traditions, and national identity.

Who was Johann Gottfried Herder?

German philosopher who popularised the idea of volksgeist (spirit of the people).

Who collected German folktales to promote nationalism?

→ The Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm).

How did language promote nationalism in Poland?

→ Polish was used in churches after Russian was imposed, symbolising resistance.

What caused hardship in Europe during the 1830s?

→ Population rise, unemployment, bad harvests, high food prices.

Who led the weavers’ revolt in Silesia (1845)?

→ The weavers themselves, against exploitation by contractors.

What did the 1848 revolution aim for?

→ Liberty, constitutional government, and national unification.

Where did the Frankfurt Parliament meet?

→ Church of St Paul, Frankfurt.

Who rejected the German crown offered by the Frankfurt Assembly?

→ King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia.

What were the demands of women during 1848 revolutions?

→ Political rights and suffrage.

Who was Louise Otto-Peters?

→ German feminist and political activist.

What was the main result of the 1848 revolutions?

→ Suppression of liberal movements, but gradual reforms followed.

Who unified Germany?

→ Otto von Bismarck.

What method did Bismarck use for unification?

→ Blood and Iron (wars).

Which three wars led to German unification?

→ Wars with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870–71).

When was the German Empire proclaimed?

→ January 1871.

Where was the German Empire proclaimed?

→ Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles.

Who became the first German Emperor?

→ Kaiser William I of Prussia.

Who led the unification of Italy?

→ Count Camillo de Cavour.

Who ruled Sardinia-Piedmont?

→ King Victor Emmanuel II.

Who ruled the red shirts?

Giuseppe Garibaldi.

What was the “Expedition of the Thousand”?

→ Garibaldi’s campaign to unite southern Italy

When was Italy unified?

1861

What does Italia stand for?

United Italy

Which act created the United Kingdom of Great Britain?

→ The Act of Union, 1707.

Who dominated the British Parliament after union?

→ The English.

What was suppressed in Scotland after union?

→ Gaelic language and traditional dress.

What religion did the English support in Ireland?

→ Protestantism.

Who led the failed Irish revolt of 1798?

→ Wolfe Tone.

When was Ireland merged with Britain?

→ 1801.

Who personified France as a woman?

→ Marianne.

Who personified Germany?

Germania

What did the oak crown worn by Germania symbolise?

→ Heroism.

What did the broken chain represent?

→ Freedom from oppression.

What did the rays of the rising sun represent?

→ Beginning of a new era.

What did the sword in Germania’s hand symbolise?

→ Readiness to fight.

What did the olive branch around the sword signify?

→ Willingness to make peace.

What did the olive branch around the sword signify?

→ Willingness to make peace.

What was the significance of the tricolour (black-red-gold)?

→ Flag of liberal nationalists in 1848.

What was the Balkan region composed of?

→ Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, etc.

Who were the inhabitants of the Balkans?

Slavs

Which empire ruled over the Balkans?

→ The Ottoman Empire

Why was the Balkans known as the “powder keg of Europe”?

→ Due to intense nationalism and rivalries among powers.

Which European powers fought for influence in the Balkans?

→ Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary.

Which war was triggered by Balkan conflicts?

→ World War I (1914).

What did Napoleon’s reforms introduce in the economic field?

→ Common currency, uniform laws, and better trade.

What was the mission of French revolutionaries abroad?

→ To liberate other nations from despotism.

What was the “daily plebiscite” according to Renan?

→ A nation’s continuous consent to live together.

What replaced regional dialects in France after 1789?

→ Standard French of Paris.

Which painting by Delacroix depicted the suffering of Greeks?

→ The Massacre at Chios (1824).