XX. Physical and Cognitive Changes 1. early adulthood: (18-30) a. reach physical peak: strongest, healthiest, and quickest reflexes b. physical decline is slow and gradual (usually unnoticed until late 20s) 1. possible explanations a. cells lose ability to repair themselves b. cells have preset biological clocks (limit ability to divide and multiply) 2. middle age (30-65) a. changes in appearance: grey and thinning hair, wrinkles b. sight difficulties (seeing in the distance) 3. old age (66+) a. muscles and fat begin to break down; lose weight and become shorter b. gradual or sudden loss of hearing c. reaction time slows Health Problems 1. some changes are natural others develop from disease, or lifestyle a. sensible eating, exercising, avoiding tobacco, drugs and alcohol will look and feel younger b. cancer, heart disease, and cirrhosis of the liver (encouraged by lifestyle) Marriage and Divorce 1. 90% of population will marry; 40-60% of new marriages end in divorce a. marriage success: how couples resolve conflicts & how often they share intimate and happy moments 1. arguments are constructive 2. arranged marriages are surprisingly successful Menopause and Sexual Behavior 1. menopause: the biological event in which a woman’s production of hormones is sharply reduced (usually between age of 45 & 50) a. woman stops ovulating and menstruating: conceiving children is no longer possible b. irritability and depression can develop (psychological origin) c. many women enjoy this stage (more confident, calmer, and freer) 2. sexual activity doesn’t decline with age Cognitive Changes 1. mid 20s: learning new skills and information, solving problems, and shifting problem solving strategies improves dramatically 2. 40s: peak of creativity and productivity 3. 50s-60s: peak in humanities (history, foreign languages, and literature) a person’s character and personality remain stable through the years A. Daniel Levinson’s Theory of Male Development (structures and transitions) 1. Early Adult Transition: 17-22 2. Entering the Adult World: 22-28 a. desire to explore the options of the adult world conflict with need to establish a stable life Age 30 transition: 28-33 a. reexamining life structure: occupation, marriage partner, life goals 4. Settling down: 33-40 a. “making it” & “becoming one’s own man” 5. Midlife transition: 40-45 a. “midlife crisis” Entering middle adulthood: 45-50 a. stability if transition was satisfactory 7. Midlife transition: 50-55 a. generativity: the desire, in middle age, to use one’s accumulated wisdom to guide future generations b. stagnation: a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past Culmination of middle adulthood: 55-60 9. Late adult transition: 60-65 10. Late adulthood: 65-70 Female Development 1. women often face the same challenges as males a. 58% of adult women work outside the home 2. women generally don’t have a midlife crisis a. some women see period as a challenge after starting a family first 3. last child leaving home a. usually only traumatic if paired with an unstable marriage 4. depression is common among middle-aged women a. loss of role as mother, daughter, and wife Changes that Come with Aging 1. decremental model of aging: idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age a. view is unrealistic b. ageism: prejudice or discrimination against the elderly Misconceptions a. the elderly rarely suffer from poor health, rarely live in poverty, and are rarely victims of crime b. the elderly rarely withdraw from life c. the elderly are rarely inflexible or senile Changes in Health 1. good health in adulthood carries over into old age 2. 80% of elderly have at least one chronic disease a. heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and arthritis 3. 65-74 year olds: 80% believe health is good 4. 75+: 72% believe health is good 5. quality of care is inferior to that of the general population a. 4% of elderly population live in nursing homes Changes in Life Situation 1. transitions in late adulthood a. 41% of women and 13% of men 65+ are widowed b. 60% of women and 22% of men 75+ are without a spouse 2. more elderly are spending time learning and developing new skills C. Changes in Sexual Activity 1. the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior Adjusting to Old Age 1. a negative self-concept results from: a. changes in health, recognition in the community, rare visits from family and friends, respect of privacy, leisure and work activities b. loss of physical control 2. assertive personalities cope better 3. AARP: speak out about social issues that affect the elderly there is much less decline in intelligence and memory than assumed 2. crystalized intelligence: the ability to use accumulated knowledge and learning in appropriate situations (increases with age) 3. fluid intelligence: the ability to solve abstract relational problems and to generate new hypotheses (decreases as nervous system declines) Dementia: decreases in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age 1. memory loss, forgetfulness, disorientation of time and place, decline in ability to think, impaired attention, altered personality 2. is not a normal part of normal development Alzheimer’s Disease: a condition that destroys a person’s ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for herself or himself 1. 4.5 million have disease in U.S. 2. 6th leading cause of death among U.S. adults 3. most often leads to a weakened state that leads to fatal problems 4. causes are not completely understood and there is currently no cure Approaching Death 1. death is a culturally and emotionally confusing and complex process A. Stages of Dying 1. thanatology: the study of dying and death Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: studied how the terminally ill react to their impending death a. denial: “no it can’t be happening to me” 1. often leads to individuals avoiding treatment b. anger: “Why me?” 1. often alienate themselves from others c. bargaining: changing of attitudes combined with bargaining d. depression: begin contemplating the losses that are coming e. acceptance: often experience a sense of calm Making Adjustments 1. Camille Wortman theorized that Kubler-Ross’s stages were just the five most common styles of dealing with death 2. how should we deal with the impending death of others a. provide opportunities for the dying to have respect, dignity and self-confidence b. open communication about dying process and legal and financial issues c. avoid judgments concerning grieving of others the contemporary population is mostly insulated from death 2. life expectancy is much longer today and most people no longer die at home A. Hospice Care 1. hospice: a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying a. goal is to create the most home-like environment where pain management can be provided b. home-based hospice care is now more frequently used than inpatient Dealing with Grief 1. John Bowlby: grief-based attachment research a. shock and numbness 1. can last several hours or weeks b. yearning and searching 1. grievers often isolate themselves 2. guilt and anger can manifest in this stage 3. may last for several months John Bowbly: disorientation and disorganization 1. depression can manifest 2. new reality becomes very confusing d. reorganization and resolution 1. griever overcomes feeling of isolation Pavlov’s Dogs 1. classical conditioning: a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus a. attaching an old prompt or stimulus to a new prompt or stimulus 2. neutral stimulus (N): a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response a. sound of tuning fork (Pavlov’s experiment) 3. unconditioned stimulus (US): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training a. food (Pavlov’s experiment) 4. unconditioned response (UR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus a. salivation (Pavlov’s experiment) 5. conditioned stimulus (CS): a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus 6. conditioned response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus A. Acquisition 1. gradually occurs every time a N/US is paired with a UR/CR 2. best timing is when the N is presented just before an US (.5 seconds) B. Generalization and Discrimination 1. generalization: responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli a. Pavlov taught dog to respond to a circle; dog would respond to other figures 2. discrimination: the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli a. Pavlov proved by never pairing the food with the oval Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 1. extinction: the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus a. Pavlov stopped giving food after sound of tuning fork 2. spontaneous recovery: when a CR reappears when a CS occurs without a US John Watson & Rosalie Rayner: the case of Little Albert a. explored the relationship between classical conditioning and emotional responses b. trained 11-month old Albert to fear lab rat c. Rat (NS) + loud sound (US) => fear (UR) Hobart & Mollie Mowrer 1938 study a. developed a bed-wetting alarm to awaken children as they begin to wet bed b. Full bladder (NS) + Alarm (UCS) => Awaken (UCR) Taste Aversions 1. develop after illness follows dining experience a. usually connected to new food even when other food was eaten John Garcia & R.A. Koelling 1. Rats (A) shocked after drinking flavored water paired with flashing lights and clicking sounds a. rats developed an aversion to the lights/sounds 2. Rats (B) injected with drug activated by drinking water (led to upset stomach) a. rats developed an aversion to the taste of the water c. used to condition coyotes to hate the taste of sheep Behaviorism 1. classical conditioning is a great example of behaviorist theory a. behaviorist study behaviors that can be observed and measured; not unobservable mental activity Reinforcement 1. operant conditioning: learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence a. participant must be actively involved 1. classically conditioned organisms are passive participants Positive and Negative Reinforcement 1. B.F. Skinner: trained rats to respond to lights and sounds (Skinner Box) 2. reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated positive reinforcement: adding something desirable after a behavior occurs 1. food (Skinner Box), social approval, money, extra privileges b. negative reinforcement: removal of something undesirable after a behavior occurs 1. changing a smoke alarm battery, buckling seatbelt, use of an umbrella Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 1. primary reinforcer: stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water 2. secondary reinforcer: stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer a. Wolfe experiment 1936 (Chimpanzees) b. money is best example Schedules of Reinforcement 1. continuous schedule: reinforcing behavior every time it occurs 2. partial schedule: positive reinforcement occurs sporadically a. acquired behaviors are more slowly established but are more persistent 1. discovered when the Skinner Box kept breaking down ratio schedules: reinforcement based on the number of responses 1. fixed-ratio: reinforcement depends on specified quantity of responses a. most consumer loyalty punch cards 2. variable-ratio: reinforcement after varying number of responses a. slot machines, door to door sales, telemarketing 1. very resistant to extinction interval schedules: reinforcement occurs after an amount of time elapses 1. fixed-interval: reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed a. salaries, cramming for tests 2. variable-interval: reinforcement of the first response after varying amounts of time a. fishing, pop quizzes 1. very resistant to extinction shaping: technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward 1. flag-raising rat a. reinforce rat for approaching flagpole b. reinforce after rat raises paw while near flagpole c. reinforce after rat gets on hind legs while near flagpole d. reinforce after rat nibbles at cord while on hind legs Combining Responses: Chaining 1. response chains: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next a. complex skill of swimming involves organizing large response chains 1. arm stroke chain, breathing chain, leg kick chain Aversive Control: process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli completed through use of negative reinforcers or punishers A. Negative Reinforcement: increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs 1. escape conditioning: training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus a. parents removing an unpleasant meal when child whines and gags while eating avoidance conditioning: training of an organism to respond so as to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus a. parents deciding against presenting an unpleasant circumstance because child whines at the possibility Punishment 1. leads to the removal or reduction of behavior 2. must be unpleasant to work a. some reprimands may actually serve as reinforcers 3. positive punishment: adding unpleasant circumstances 4. negative punishment: removal of pleasant circumstances Disadvantages of Punishment 1. can produce rage, aggression, and fear in children 2. spanking can lead to increased aggression toward other children 3. can lead to children avoiding person who punishes 4. fails to teach appropriate and acceptable behavior Cognitive Learning 1. social learning: process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others a. learning goes beyond mechanical responses to stimuli or reinforcement 2. cognitive learning: form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 1. Wolfgang Kohler: chimpanzee study on insight 2. Edward Tolman: rat study on cognitive maps and latent learning a. cognitive map: a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events b. latent learning: alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior Learned Helplessness: condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable 1. college students/noise study 2. Martin Seligman Theory a. stop trying b. lower self-esteem c. depression ensues Modeling: learning by imitating others; copying behavior mimicry: performing old, established responses that we might not be using at the time. 2. observational learning: learning to perform a behavior after watching others perform it a. Albert Bandura: Bobo doll experiment 3. disinhibition: the increased likelihood a behavior will be repeated when observed behavior is not punished a. often used to alleviate phobias the systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions or feelings A. Computer-Assisted Instruction 1. S.L. Pressey (1933) & B.F. Skinner (1950s) a. program that uses reinforcement (new information, choices, or point rewards) each time a student shows they learned something new b. program builds on information student has already mastered Token Economics 1. token economy: conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards a. used in schools, prisons, mental hospitals, and halfway houses Self-Control 1. having people set up personal systems of rewards and punishments to shape their own thoughts and actions a. define the problem b. track the behavior c. set up a behavioral contract Improving Your Study Habits 1. progressively increase study quotas (successive approximations) a. remove conditioned aversive stimuli adjust to change or alter in order to fit or conform adapt A changing to fit new conditions menopause the biological event in which a woman's production of sex hormones is sharply reduced generativity the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations stagnation a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past function the ability to achieve his or her goals within him or her self and the external environment. It includes an individual's behavior, emotion, social skills, and overall mental health assumed accepted as real or true without proof decremental model of aging idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age ageism prejudice or discrimination against the elderly dementia decreases in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age Alzheimer's disease a condition that destroys a person's ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for herself or himself component A part or element of a larger whole. isolating causing one to feel alone thanatology the study of death and dying hospice a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying classical conditioning a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus neural stimulus a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response unconditioned stimulus an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training unconditioned response an organism's automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus conditioned stimulus a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus conditioned response the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus generalization responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli discrimination the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli extinction the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus operant conditioning learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence reinforcement stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated secondary reinforcer stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforce primary reinforcer stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water shaping technique in which the desired behavior is "molded" by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward response chain learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next aversive control process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli negative reinforcement increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs escape conditioning training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus avoidance conditioning training of an organism to respond so as to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus social learning process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others cognitive learning form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation cognitive map a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events latent learning alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior learned helplessness condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior token economy conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards

Silk Road

A vast network of trade routes established during the Han Dynasty of China that connected the East to the West.

Silk

The primary commodity traded on the Silk Road, highly desired in the west for its quality and luxury.

Spices

Valuable goods used for food preservation, flavor enhancement, and medicinal properties; included pepper, cinnamon, and cardamom.

Tea

A significant export from China to the west that influenced social customs and trade.

Porcelain

Highly sought-after trade good known for its beauty and craftsmanship.

Precious Metals

Gold and silver exchanged on the Silk Road, serving as a medium of wealth and basis for trade agreements.

Cultural Exchange

The process by which the Silk Road facilitated the spread of religions, artistic styles, and scientific knowledge across different civilizations.

Impact on Societies

The Silk Road fostered economic growth, increased trade diversity, and led to the establishment of trade cities.

Black Death

A disease that spread along the Silk Road, impacting populations across continents.

Han Dynasty

The ruling dynasty of China during which the Silk Road was established.