PSYCHOLOGY TOPIC 9 - RELATIONSHIPS

Explain the term evolution

Human population came from differences in genes (50% from each parent) and this affects our behaviour.

Explain the term natural selection

Evolutionary process of gradual changes in genes - survival of the fittest

Explain sexual selection

Human reproductive behaviour (different mating strategies)

Define the term sexual selection?

Where someone prefers a partner because of attributes that increase chances of reproductive success - survival of the sexiest

Explain the Clarke and Hatfield study on sexual selection

- all women said no to the man to having sex
- 3 in 4 men (75%) said yes to sleeping with the woman
- women can also want casual sex (limitations)

Explain the term anisogamy

Is the difference between male and female sex cells

Explain sperm production

Produced continually (110 million sperm/ejaculation) and are produced with little energy

Explain egg production

1 released per month for a limited 25 years

What are men's views in relation to anisogamy?

Males look for females displaying signs of fertility eg: good health/youth

What are women's views in relation to anisogamy?

Women look for mates with genetic fitness/resources

What are the two types of sexual selection?

1. Intersexual selection
2. Intrasexual selection

Explain the term inter-sexual selection

Strategies males use to select females or females use to select males (mate CHOICE)
- preferred by females: lose more from a substandard partner

Explain the term intra-sexual selection

Strategies between males to be the one that is selected (mate COMPETITION)
- winner reproduces and passes on characteristics

What are the strength evaluations of sexual selection?

+) Buss
+) Clarke and Hatfield
+) Waynforth and Dunbar

What are the limitation evaluations of sexual selection?

-) Partner preference influenced by rapidly changing norms

Explain the strength evaluation of sexual selection: Buss

- 10,000 adults in 33 countries
- questions relating to age and attributes
- females \= greater value on resource related characteristics
- males \= reproductive capacity (good looks, chastity and younger)

+) supports ANISOGOMY (/inter sexual selection)
-) COUNTER POINT - lacks external validity, only looks at partner preference rather than reality of partner choice (compromise) - 29 cultures, men choose younger women, divorce and remarry younger women

Explain the strength evaluation: Clarke and Hatfield

Male and female psychology students sent across campus
- 'I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight.'
- Men \= 75% yes
- Women \= 0% yes

+) supports INTER SEXUAL SELECTION
-) COUNTER POINT - Gender bias (short-term mating only applied to men - can't evolve strategy without willing females, more casual sex)

Explain the strength evaluation: Waynforth and Dunbar

American Newspaper lonely hearts adverts
- women \= offered physical attractiveness and youth
- men \= offered resources and sought youth and physical attractiveness

+) supports INTRA SEXUAL SELECTION (/Anisogamy)

Explain the limitation evaluation: partner preference influenced by rapidly changing norms

cultural factors \= availability of contraception
- women's greater role in workplace, don't rely on men to provide for them
- Partner preference changed and remained the same in China over 25 years (social changes in time)

-) goes against INTER SEXUAL SELECTION

What are the 3 factors affecting attraction?

1) Self disclosure
2) Physical attractiveness
3) Filter theory

What is the first factor affecting physical attraction?

self-disclosure

What is self-disclosure?

Involves revealing personal information about yourself
- the longer a relationship is the more things are self-disclosed (can strengthen a relationship if used appropriately)

What is the social penetration theory? (Self disclosure)

Altman and Taylor
- Gradual process of revealing your inner self and involves a reciprocal exchange of information
- In order to 'penetrate' more deeply into each other's lives - needs trust to occur

What is the breadth and depth of self-disclosure?

- we disclose a lot about ourselves at the start of a relationship but what we reveal is superficial, 'low risk' information
- Breadth narrows because many topics are 'off limits' and if we reveal too much too soon we might get a response of 'too much information'
- As a relationship develops we are more prepared to reveal 'high risk' information

What is reciprocity of self-disclosure?

Reis and Shaver
- for a relationship to develop and for breadth and depth there needs to be a reciprocal element of disclosure in a hope that your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding - needs a balance

What factors impact self disclosure?

1) Appropriateness- social norms
2) Attributions of disclosure- why someone might self-disclose
3) Gender differences- women are better communicators of intimate information
4) Content of disclosure- what the disclosure actually is

What are the evaluation points of self disclosure?

-) culture bound
+) strong correlations
-) correlational research
+) practical application

Explain the negative evaluation point of self-disclosure: culture bound

- Increasing depth and breadth will lead to a more satisfactory relationship is not true for all cultures
- men and women in the individualist USA self-disclose more sexual thoughts and feelings than collectivist Chinese men and women

Explain the positive evaluation point of self-disclosure: strong correlations

- Sprecher and Hendrick: studied heterosexual dating couples and found a strong correlation between measures of satisfaction and self disclosure
- Laurenceau et al.: looked at daily diary entries and found self-disclosure and perception of self-disclosure in a partner were linked to higher level of intimacy in long-term married couples and less intimate couples self-disclosed less often

Explain the negative evaluation point of self-disclosure: correlational research

- more self-disclosure can lead to greater satisfaction but the reverse could also be true
- correlation is not causation

Explain the positive evaluation point of self-disclosure: practical application

- less skilled partners who limit conversation to 'small talk' can be taught to use self-disclosure which can benefit the relationship

What is the second factor affecting physical attraction?

physical attractiveness

What are the evolutionary views of physical attractiveness?

- symmetrical faces \= more attractive as is a sign of good genes (Shackelford and Larsen)
- Neotenous faces (baby faces) \= widely separated large eyes, small chin and nose \= trigger a caring instinct

What is the halo effect?

When one trait of a person is used to make an overall judgement of that person

- individuals seen as physically attractive tend to create a favourable reaction. eg: trustworthy, optimistic and sociable

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

because of the halo effect we behave more positively towards a person

What is the matching hypothesis?

We are more likely to be attracted to people who are of similar physical attractiveness to ourselves

What two hypotheses did Walster et al. propose?

Hyp 1) Attractive people expect an attractive partner (matching hypothesis)
- feel more secure in this relationship- greater confidence
Hyp 2) couples who are equally matched are happier

What are the evaluation points for physical attraction?

-) Walster - computer dance study
+) Meta-analysis
+) Politicians
-) Sexist attitudes
+) Role of cultural influences

Explain the negative evaluation point of physical attraction: Walster - computer dance study

- Advertised a 'computer dance' for students and the male and female volunteers were selected. Their attractiveness was ranked (subjective) by the observer. They also completed a personality quiz but were then paired up randomly. They completed a questionnaire before and after the dance. Results showed that participants ignored their own attractiveness and prefer more physically attractive dates.

Explain the positive evaluation point of physical attraction : meta analysis

- Feingold carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between actual romantic partners (more realistic)

Explain the positive evaluation point of physical attraction: Politicians

- Palmer and Peterson (2012)
- physically attractive people rated more politically knowledgeable
- halo effect present even when people knew they had no expertise
- dangerous for democracy as politicians could be judged suitable for office just because they are attractive

Explain the negative evaluation point of physical attraction: Sexist attitudes

- Towkey (1979)
- asked male and female participants to rate an individual based on photo and bio. Participants also completed MACHO scale questionnaire (measures sexist attitudes.) Participants who scored more highly were more influenced by physical attractiveness- physical attractiveness moderated by other factors

Explain the positive evaluation point of physical attraction: Role of cultural influences

- Cunningham et al.
- found the female features of large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows is rated highly attractive by white, hispanic and asian males. The stereotype is strong in collectivist and individualist cultures.

What is the filter theory?

We filter down the 'field of availables' down to the 'field of desirables' - different filters are prominent at different stages

What did Kerckhoff and Davis do?

compared 'short-term coupes' (together for

What are the 3 filters of the filter theory?

1. social demography
2. similarity in attitudes
3. complementarity

Explain the first filter of the filter theory: social demography

(early stages)
- geographical location (proximity), social class, level of education, ethnic group, religion (Homogamy)
- more likely to meet people with similar demographic to you
- accessibility- choices constrained by social circumstances

Explain the second filter of the filter theory: similarity of attitudes

(relationship developing)
- significant beliefs and values in common- important for development in couples

Explain the third filter of the filter theory: complementary

(personality traits)
- meeting the needs of the other partner, traits the other one lacks
- more important in long term couples (opposites attract) -together they form a whole

What are the evaluations of the filter theory?

+) supporting research evidence
-) failure to replicate
-) direction of cause and effect
-) lack of temporal validity

Explain the positive evaluation of the filter theory: supporting research evidence

Winch
- similarities of personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical of the earliest stages of a relationship
-echoes matching hypothesis

Explain the negative evaluation of the filter theory: failure to replicate

Levinger
- hard to replicate due to social changes and difficulties in defining the depth of a relationship, assumed partners who had been together \>18m were committed and had a deeper relationship
- difficulty applying to another heterosexual in an individualist culture let alone in another culture

Explain the negative evaluation of the filter theory: direction of cause and effect

- Evidence suggesting direction of causality (that people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar) is wrong
- Anderson et al.: found in a longitudinal study that cohabiting partners become more similar in their emotional responses over time (emotional convergence)
- Davis and Rusbult: found attitude alignment effect in long-term couples who bring their attitudes into line with eachother

Explain the negative evaluation of the filter theory: lack of temporal validity

- online dating has reduced the importance of social demographic, makes meeting partners easier

What are the 3 theories of romantic relationships?

1) Social exchange theory (SET)
2) Equity theory
3) Investment model

What is the social exchange theory (SET)?

- Economic theory, exchange between partners
- partners are constantly working out the rewards and costs to see if a relationship is profitable
- if not then a person may leave

How do you calculate profit in a relationship?

Rewards - costs \= profit

What are the 4 key components of SET?

1) Rewards, costs and profits
2) Comparison level (CL)
3) Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)
4) Stages of relationship development

Explain the rewards, costs and profits component of SET

- behaviour in a relationship reflects the economic assumptions of exchange to minimise loss and maximise gain (minimax principle)
- we define satisfaction in a relationship through profits (subjective)

What are some examples of rewards in a relationship?

sex, emotional support, secondary income

What are some examples of costs in a relationship?

time, effort, energy, opportunity

Explain the comparison level (CL) component of SET

- the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get: develops from our previous experiences of relationships (feed into our expectations)
- Influenced by social norms (what is a reasonable level of reward): reflected in media (books, films and tv)
- CL changes as we have more 'data' from relationships
- links to self-esteem (low SE \= low CL and small profit or loss)

Explain the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) component of SET

- second measure of profit: wider context for current relationships
- do we gain greater rewards and fewer costs in a relationship compared to not
- SET predicts we will stay in a relationship as long as it is more rewarding than alternatives eg: could I do better
- Duck: CLalt we adopt will depend on the state of current relationship

current potential
profit < CL \= new relationship
profit \> CL \= current relationship

What are the 4 stages of relationship development as a component of SET?

1) Sampling
2) Bargaining
3) Commitment
4) Institutionalisation

Explain the sampling stage of relationship development (SET)

We explore the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships (not just romantic ones)

Explain the bargaining stage of relationship development (SET)

Marks the beginning of a relationship when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiation of what is more profitable

Explain the commitment stage of relationship development (SET)

The sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase

Explain the institutionalisation stage of relationship development (SET)

Partners are now settled down because the norms of the relationship, in terms of rewards and costs, are firmly established

What are the evaluations of social exchange theory?

-) Don't keep track of rewards and costs
-) CLalt only begins when a person is dissatisfied
-) Rewards are hard to measure and quantify
-) Ignores equity

Explain the negative evaluation point of SET: don't keep track of rewards and costs

People in romantic relationships tend not to keep strict track of rewards and costs (very annoying) people are more likely to do this with colleagues (exchange relationships)

Explain the negative evaluation point of SET: CLalt only begins when a person is dissatisfied

Research shows that people only start weighing up rewards and costs and compare to alternatives once they become dissatisfied in a relationship. People in committed relationships tend not to compare to alternatives much at all

Explain the negative evaluation point of SET: Rewards are hard to measure and quantify

eg: how would we accurately measure psychological rewards from a relationship such as emotional support

Explain the negative evaluation point of SET: Ignores equity

Doesn't consider equity (fairness) and focuses on rewards and costs

What is the meaning of equality?

Treating everyone the same, aims to promote fairness but only if everyone starts from the same place and needs the same help

What is the meaning of equity?

Giving someone what they need to be successful (fairness)

What do Walster et al. argue according to equity?

Both partners must have a similar level of profit to be satisfied
- should receive a similar amount as what they give
- not the same amount but more of a ratio (negotiations in satisfying relationships ensures equity)

What can a lack of equity lead to?

unhappiness (dissatisfied) and can lead to relationship breakdown

What can equity lead to?

fairness \= satisfaction

Give an example of equity

Someone with a disability can't do the same domestic chores as their partner (not fair) but could provide emotional support

What are the two consequences of inequity?

1) Under benefitting
2) Over benefitting

What is under benefitting and give some examples of emotions associated with it

give more than receiving
- anger, hostility, resentment

What is over benefitting and give some examples of emotions associated with it

receive more than giving
- guilt, discomfort, shame

If perceived inequity is greater what happens to satisfaction?

decreases, greater dissatisfaction

If there are changes to the level of perceived inequity over time what happens to satisfaction?

Leads to most dissatisfaction

What are the two ways of dealing with inequity?

1) behavioural
2) cognitive

Explain the behavioural way of dealing with inequity

'put upon' (under benefitting)
- will work to make the relationship more equitable as long as they believe the relationship is salvageable
- more unfair \= harder to restore equity

Explain the cognitive way of dealing with inequity

- Reward/cost perceptions have changed so it feels more equitable to us (accept as the norm - realignment of rewards/costs)
- untidiness, thoughtlessness, abuse

What are the evaluations of equity theory?

-) Individual differences
+) supporting research evidence
-) types of relationship
-) cultural influences

Explain the negative evaluation point of equity theory: individual differences

Husemann suggests that some people are less sensitive to equity and describe some partners as benevolent who are prepared to give more, others are entitled and don't experience guilt

Explain the positive evaluation point of equity theory: supporting research evidence

Equity is more valid than SET.
- A survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity with 2 self-report scales (husbands and wives aged 16-45 together for 2+ years before marriage)
- couples who considered relationship more equitable were more satisfied

Explain the negative evaluation point of equity theory: types of relationship

Research supports the view that equity plays a central role in casual friendships, business relationships and acquaintances not just romantic relationships

Explain the negative evaluation point of equity theory: cultural influences

- Assumes equity theory is universal but cultural differences were found in the link between equity and satisfaction.
- Research compared collectivist and individualist culture and individualist considered relationship most satisfying when equitable but collectivist were most satisfied when over benefitting

What does Rusbult's investment model suggest?

commitment is key to a successful relationship, balancing costs/rewards or fairness doesn't matter

What 3 factors does the investment model depend on?

1) satisfaction level
2) CLalt
3) Investment size

Explain what the investment model looks like and what is it a development of?

development of SET

Explain the investment size component of the investment model

- CL and CLalt can't fully explain commitment (relationships would end more as there are always alternatives)
- refers to the size (extent and importance) of resources associated with relationship

What is the meaning of investment?

Anything we would lose if relationship were to end

What are the 2 types of investment (investment size component)?

1) Intrinsic
2) Extrinsic

Explain the intrinsic type of investment (investment size component)? Give some examples of tangible and intangible intrinsic investment

Resources we put directly into the relationship

- tangible \= money
- intangible \= emotions/self-disclosure

Explain the extrinsic type of investment (investment size component)? Give some examples of tangible and intangible extrinsic investment

Resources that weren't in relationship before but are now important

- tangible \= child, shared living (house)
- intangible \= shared memories