AP Psych Unit 2: Mods 9-15, 23-25

phrenology

phrenology

study of bumps on skull to reveal personality and mental abilities

localization of function

idea that various brain regions have particular functions

biological psych

study of links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

neuron

nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

neurons’ branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

neuron extension that passes messages through branches to other neurons, muscles, and glands

myelin sheath

fatty tissue layer encasing axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed as neural impulses travel

action potential

neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refactory period

period of inactivity after neuron has fired

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger neural response

all-or-none response

neuron’s reaction of either firing with full strength or not at all

synapse

junction between axon tip of sending neuron and the dentrite/cell body of receiving neuron (tiny gap=synaptic gap or clef)

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across synapses and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

neurotransmitter’s resorption by the sending neuron

agonist

molecule that by binding to receptor site stimulates a response

antagonist

molecule that by binding to receptor site inhibits/blocks response

sensory/afferent neurons

afferent = inward, towards; neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor/efferent neurons

efferent = outward, away; neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

nerves

bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

nervous system

body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal chord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect central nervous system (CNS) to rest of body

interneurons

neurons within brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system (PNS)

division of the peripheral nervous system that controls body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (PNS)

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls glands and muscles of internal organs (heart) - sympathetic arouses; parasympathetic calms

sympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic nervous system that arouses body - fight or flight

parasympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic nervous system that calms body, conserving energy

reflex

simple, automatic response to sensory stimulus (like knee jerk)

endocrine system

body’s “slow” chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands travel through bloodstream and effect other tissues

adrenal glands

pair of endocrine glands that sit above kidneys, secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse body in times of stress

pituitary gland

endocrine system’s most influential; under influence of hypothalamus, pituitary regulates growth and controls other endo glands

lesion

tissue distruction; naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

electroencephalogram (EEG)

amplified recording of waves of electrical activity sweeping across brain’s surface; waves measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (computed tomography) scan / CAT

series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into composite representation of a slice of brain’s structure

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while brain performs given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue and show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

technique for revealing bloodflow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; scans show brain function and structure

brainstem

oldest part and central core of brain, beginning where spinal chord enters skull; responsible automatic survival functions

medulla

base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

above medulla; coordinates movement and links brain to spinal chord, helps facilitate parts of sleep cycle

thalamus

brain’s sensory control center; located on top of brainstem; directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

nerve network that travels through brainstem and thalamus and plays important role in arousal

cerebellum

“little brain” at rear of the brainstem; functions like processing sensory input, coordinating movement/balance, and nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system (including hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

hippocampus

responsible for formation of memory, processes explicit memories for storage

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), governs endocrine system via pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion/reward

cerebral cortex

fabric of interconnected neural cells covering cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

glial cells

cells in nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; may also play role in learning and thinking

frontal lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying behind forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans/judgments.

parietal lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying at top and rear of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back lower of the head; includes areas that receive info from visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of cerebral cortex lying roughly above ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from opposite ear

motor cortex

area at the rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at front of parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor/sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, speaking

broca’s area

damage disrupts speaking

wernicke’s area

damage disrupts understanding

plasticity

brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenisis

formation of new neurons

lateralization

localization of function or activity on one hemisphere of brain in preference to the other

corpus callosum

large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

condition resulting from surgery that isolates brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (corpus callosum) connecting them

consciousness

awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, language)

dual processing

principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious track (“we know more than we know”)

behavior genetics

study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain genes

DNA

complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up chromosomes

genes

biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

genome

complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from single fertilized egg that splits

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; shared fetal environment

molecular genetics

subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

heritability

proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

interaction

interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change (“nature via nurture”)

evolutionary psych

study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

principle

that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

mutation

random error in gene replication that leads to a change

sexual overperception bias

male tendency to believe that women are more sexually attracted to them than they are in reality

circadian rhythm

biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (wakefullness, body temp) on a 24hr cycle

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

pair of cell clusters in hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying feelings of sleepiness

alpha waves

relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non–rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

delta waves

large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

sleep spindles

bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity

REM sleep

rapid eye movement; recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur, aka paradoxical sleep bc muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active