AP Psychology Unit O: Science Practices

Flashcards covering key concepts in AP Psychology Unit O: Science Practices.

Psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior

Cultural Norms

the unwritten rules and expectations that govern acceptable behavior within a society and shape out values, beliefs, thoughts, emotions and behaviors

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to see past events as more predictable than they actually were once the outcome is known. Known as the “knew-it-all-along" effect.

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to seek information that confirms our pre-existing beliefs

Social Desirability Bias

the tendency of participants to respond in a way that presents them in a favorable light, rather than truthfully

Overconfidence

a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their abilities or knowledge

Longitudinal Study

a research technique that follows that same group of individuals over a long period of time

Cross-Sectional Study

a research technique that compares individuals from different age groups at one time

Non-Experimental Research Design

a research design that does not involve manipulation of variables

Case Study

an in-depth investigation of an individual or small group, happen upon people to test

Naturalistic Observation

observing behavior in a natural environment without manipulation

Correlational Research

research that identifies the relationship between two variables with NO manipulation of variables but cannot imply causation

Positive Correlation

occurs when two variables move in the same direction, meaning that as one increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases, the other decreases

Negative Correlation

occurs when two variables move in opposite directions, meaning that as one increases, the other decreases

Correlation Coeffficient (r)

a statistical measure that quantifies the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables from r=-1 to r=1

• closer to +1 indicates a positive correlation

• closer to -1 indicates a negative correlation

• closer to 0 indicates no correlation

Spurious Correlation

when two variables are associated but not causally related due to a unforeseen third, confounding variable

Meta-Analysis

a method that combines results from multiple studies for a comprehensive research outcome

Survey

a data collection technique that allows information to be gathered from a wide audience by asking them questions, usually online

Framing/Wording Effect

a cognitive bias where people’s decisions are influenced by how information is presented, rather than the information itself

Experimental Design

the only research design that lets us draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships, involves variable manipulation

Operational Definition

specifies exactly how a concept or variable will be measured, observed, or manipulated in a study, turning abstract ideas into concrete, measurable terms

Independent Variable

the factor that the researcher manipulates or changes

Dependent Variable

the outcome or the response measured due to the independent variable

Confounding Variable

factors that may influence the relationship between the IV and the DV, possible skewing the results

Experimental Group

the set of participants in an experiment or study that receives the treatment or intervention being tested

Control Group

the set of participants in an experiment or study that does NOT receive the treatment or intervention being tested, serving as a baseline for comparison and helps to limit confounding variables

Population

the entire group of individuals that the researcher is interested in studying

Representative Sample

a subset of the population accurately representing the characteristics of the population. When there is random sampling, this typically exists

Random Sampling

each member of the population has an equal change to be selected for the study

Convenience Sampling

selecting participants based on their availability and accessibility

Random Assignment

every participant in the study has an equal change of being in either an experimental group or in a control group, to further eliminate confounding variables

Placebo Effect

occurs when a person experiences real improvements in symptoms after receiving a treatment that has no active therapeutic effect but appears to be genuine (placebo), driven largely by expectation and brain-body interactions

Singlie-Brind

only the participants are unaware of their group assignment

Double-Blind

both the participants and the researchers are unaware of the group assignments

mean

average value

median

middle value

mode

most frequent value

range

highest value - lowest value

Standard Deviation

a measure of how broadly or narrowly a set of scores or values deviate from the mean

z-score

measures how many SD a point is away from the mean

Normal Distribution/Bell Curve

a continuous probability distribution where data is symmetrically distributed around the mean, forming a bell-shaped curve

• with percentage values at 0.15, 2.35, 13.5, 34

• (ex. IQ scores)

Positive Skew

occurs when most data points cluster on the left with a long tail extending to the right

Negative Skew

occurs when most data points cluster on the right with a long tail extending to the left

Generalizability

the degree that results from a study can be applied to a broader context/the population

Statistical Significance (p)

the degree to which a research outcome cannot be reasonably attributed to chance or random factors

• p score <0.05 means that the study is statistically significant

• if a study is statistically significant, than the study can be replicated and generalized

Effect Size (d)

determines how much the IV affected the DV

• small effect size d=0.2-0.49

• medium effect size d=0.5-0.79

• large effect size d=0.8 or greater

• the larger the effect size, the more generalizable and reliable

Research Ethics

the set of principles and rules that distinguish acceptable from unacceptable conduct when carrying out scientific studies

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

a committee established to review and approve research involving human subjects, to ensure that ethical standards are being applied

Informed Consent

the process by which a research participant voluntarily agrees to participate after being fully informed of the risks, benefits, and alternatives

Informed Assent

for minors, permission to participate has to be given from the parents. The child’s willingness to participate should also be respected

Confidentiality

participants’ information is securely stored and is not disclosed without consent

Protection from Harm

researchers must minimize physical and psychological harm to participants to avoid distress or injury

Debriefing

after the study, participants should be provided with complete information about the research, including its purpose, findings, and any sort of deception used

Right to Withdrawal

participants have the right to leave the study at any point without facing any negative consequences