Issues And Debates

What is Alpha Bias?

research that focuses on the differences between men and women and therefore presents a view that exaggerates these differences

What is Beta Bias?

Research that focuses on the similarities of men and women and therefore presents a view that minimises these differences.

Definition of Gender Bias

psychological research or theory that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women. This is based on stereotypes and beliefs rather than real differences.

What is universality?

When a theory is universal it can apply to all people irrespective of gender and culture

Androcentrism

Andocentrism is a consequence of gender bias, it means being centred around or dominated by males. This can be conscious or unconcious.

Consequences of Androcentrism

This can lead to female behaviour being understood and pathologised. Female behaviour can be taken as psychological instability or disorder.

Brescall and Uhlman claim pms is a social construct which medicalises female emotion by explaining it in hormonal terms. Male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures.

Example of Alpha Bias

Freud- During phallic stage boys and girls develop desire for their parents. While boys suffer from castration anxiety which is resolved when they identify with their father, girls experience penis envy where lack of identification with their father leads to a weaker superego.

Freuds theory viewed women as a failed form of masculinity.

Example of beta Bias

Biological research has found that women tend to experience the tend and befriend response rather than the fight or flight response. Research has a tendency to focus on male animals as their hormones are easier to track, this is then generalised to male and female humans.

Limitations of the Existence of Gender Bias

Findings often go unchallenged.

For example, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective in terms of male selection. This means we assume men are the gender that fight for female validation. However, recent DNA evidence suggests that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises. This highlights the importance to challenging earlier gender research to ensure we have a valid picture of men and women.

Beta bias has consequences for women. Hare-mustin and Marecek point out that arguing for equality for men and women takes attention away from women’s special needs. In society men hold the power so sometimes lack of actions end up benefitting the group with power.eg. equal parental leave would be unfair as it ignores the biological demands of pregnancy which would disadvantage women.

Ways to reduce Gender Bias

Theories have been developed that empower women. Cornwall noted that females are better at learning as they are more attentive and organised thus emphasising both the value and positive attributes of women. This helps to reduce stigma related to gender stereotypes.

Another way to reduce gender bias is to take a more feminist approach, this attempts to restore balance in pyschological theories and research. research bu Eagly claimed that wo men are less effective leaders than men. The purpose of Eagly’s claim was to spotlight the lack of support available for women via this research. She helped researchers develop training programmes aimed at reducing the lack of female leaders in the work place by building female confidence in a previously male dominated area.

What is Culture Bias?

The tendency to interpret behaviour through the lens of ones own cultrure.

What is enthnocentrism?

When researchers see and judge other cultures by the standards and values of their own cultural perspective, presuming that is what is normal and correct. This leads to lack o awareness or an ignorance to other valid perspectives in the world.

In an extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of ones own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

Example of Ethnocentric Research

The strange situation, Ainsworth suggested that her ideal attatchment was characteristics of babies displaying moderate amounts of seperation and stranger anxiety. this led to misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from American norms..

What is cultural relativism?

When researchers insist that behaviour can only be correctly interpreted if we study it in its cultural context.

Example of cultrually relative research

Sternberg- argued that meaning of intelligence is different for different cultures. eg. coodination may be more valued in a pre=literate societywhich is not the case for literate or developed societies.

The only way to understand intelligence is to take cultural context into account, we might start making inferences that are not necessarily.

What is the difference between an Emic and an Etic approach?

Berry

An Etic approach looks at behaviour outside a given culture and attempts to describe the behaviours as universal.

An Emic approach functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture

Limitation of Culture Bias Existing

Real world application as it has led to ethnic stereotyping. eg. US army used IQ test before before WW1 which showed African American as being bottom of IQ scale. The data has led to enduring stereotypes concerning certain ethnic groups and their IQ which highlights the negative impact that culturally based research can have.

Ways to counter Culture Bias

One way to counter culture bias is to recognise it when it occurs. Smith and Bond found in their 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology that 66% of the studies were American, 32% were European and 2% were from the rest of the world. Psychological research is severley under-representative.

Afrocentrism- afrocentrism is a movement which suggests that because black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of their behaviours and attitudes. Theories that have emerged from afrocentric research are more relevent to the lives and cultrure of people not only in Africa but also those removed from their African origins. This makes the research more generalisable.

What is Free Will?

Humans play an active role and are free to act and think in whichever way they choose. This means that causal explanations cannot be made and this means that humans are unpredictable.

Outline Hard Determinism

Sometimes known as fatalism, This is the view that forces outside our control (eg. biology and past experiences) shape our behaviour. This is where all human behaviour has a cause and therefore it should be possible to identify these causes which is in line with science.

Outline Soft Determinism

All human behaviour has a cause but people can have concious thought in the realm of what they know. While behaviour is predictable it doesn’t make it inevitable.

What is Biological Determinism

All human behaviour is innate and determined by genes/hormones. Nestadt-first degree relatives who suffer from OCD are more likely to suffer from OCD at the same point in their lives.

What is environmental Determinism?

behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experience which could be learned throuch classical/operant conditioning. This comes from the behaviourist approach to phobias which suggests that phobias are required through operant ande classical. Our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events as agents of socialisation.

What is Psychic Determinism

All human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives. for example, masculine/feminine traits are acquired during the phallic stage of development. Freud- behaviour is determined by successful/unsuccessful identification with your parents.

Evaluate Free Will

Good Face Validity

We feel like we make our own choices on a daily basis. This gives the impression that we constantly exercise free will. People with internal locus of control over their own behaviours tend to be more morally healthy. This was shown by Roberts who found that adolescents with a strong belief in determinism more more at risk of developing depression.

Therefore, Thinking we have free will has positive impact on mind and behaviour

Evidence Against Free Will

Libet and Soon conducted 2 studies where it was found that brain activity determined the outcome of a choice way before the participants had made a decision.

Participants had to press a button with their right or left hand, their brain activity decided up to 10 seconds before they did.

Therefore, even our most basic experiences of free will are determined before we are even made aware of them.

Evaluate determinism

Consistent With Aims Of Science

If human behaviour is orderly and obeys law, this makes universality possible and places psychology with natural sciences.

Assuming that behaviour is predictable means that we can be proactive with research, predictability has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions. This means that peoples lives can be improved-return to work LINK TO ECONOMY

Further, existence of conditions such as schizophrenia where people can experience a loss of control casts doubt on the existence of free will.

Derminism provides Excuse For Crimminal Acts

Not consistent with justice system, 1981 Stephen Mobley argued he was born to kill after killing a pizza shop worker due to his family having a disposition towards violence. His argument was rejected in court.

However, hard deterministic position may be undesirable as removing free will allows people to mitigate their own liability. This may cause problems regarding responsibility and intent.

What is meant by the Nature/Nurture debate?

The debate addresses the relative contribution each side has on development and behaviours.

Nature: Behaviour is product of innate biological factors Nurture: Behaviour is a product of environmental influences

Genetic explanations for the influence of nature

Family and twin studies suggest that the closer two individuals are genetically, the more likely they will develop the same behaviour. Eg. in schizophrenia the concordance rate for MZ twins is 40% while for DZ twins it is 7%.

Evolutionary explanations for the influence of nature

Natural selection- Any trait that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selective. If behaviour is adaptive then these behaviours will be passed to the next generation.

Bowlby-Attatchment is adaptive because it promotes survival through protection. Your primary caregiver will aid you in survival and that in turn will protect their genes.

Example of the influence of Nurture

Behaviourism (behaviour entirely down to environment)

In attatchment an infant is classically conditioned to associate primary caregiver with the pleasure of recieving food. This leads to drive reduction, once the baby is fed the discomfort goes away (operant conditioning)

What is the Interactionist Approach?

Idea that development is soley caused by nature or nurture is too simplistic a view. Modern psychology looks at how they interact with eachother.

Diathesis Stress Model

Example of interactionist approach, this suggests you are born with a biological vunerability. This vunerability is only expressed when you come into contact with an environmental trigger. (this can be seen in concordance rates for OCD)

Strength of Nature/Nurture debate

Real World Application

Research suggests that OCD is a highly heritable disorder, this has led to the development of genetic counselling. The understanding that higher heritibility does not mean inevitability meant that people who have high genetic risk can recieve advice about the liklihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent it.

Therefore, debate is not just theorectical but practical.

Research Support

Scar and Mcartney argue that genes may exert and indirect.

Passive interactions- parents genes affect way they treat their children. (musical parents likely to encourage music in their children)

Evocative Interactions-Child’s genes influences environment they grow up in (musical child may be picked for school concerts)

Active Interactions-Child creates its own environment through people and experiences it selects. (musical child more likely to have musical friends)

Limitations for Nature/Nurture

Two Cannot Be Seperated

Hebb-argues they both contribute and should therefore never be considered seperately. eg. Phenylketonuria is an inherited disorder that prevents amino acids being metabolised which results in brain damage. A low protein diet can stop this gene being expressed.

Therefore, nature and nurture is interwoven so it is a pointless debate.

Testing influence of environment is complicated

Even if your raised in the same family you may not experience exactly the same upbringing. Dunn and Plomin introduced idea of shared an unshared characteristics, individual differences mean siblings experience life events differently this could explain why concordance rates are never 100%.

Therefore, this supports the view that hereditary and environment cannot be meaningfully seperated.

What is meant by Holism?

Argues that behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up.

What is Reductionism

reductionism is explained on the scientific assumption of parsimony, this is the phenomenon that complex things should be explained by the simplest underlying principles. Strong supportes of reductionism believ that behaviour and mental processes should be explained within the framework of basic sciences.

What are levels of explanation

Social levels are where research attributes begaviour to social and cultrural norms, this is seen in the cognitive and SLT approaches.

Psychological leexplanations are where behaviour is attributed to psychological reasons, this can be seen in the psychodynamic and cognitive approaches.

Biological explanations are the mostb reductionist which is seen in the biological approach

What is an example for the levels of explanation?

Memory can be explained at all 3 levels.

Social- Bartlet suggests that cultural expectations affect our schema’s, this then affects what we remember and how we recall information.

Psychological- Miller examined capacity of memory.

Biological- Maguire found association between the size of the hippocampus and spatial navigation.

Explain Biological Reductionism

Biological explanations are only interested in physiology, they argue all behaviour is due to neurons, neurotransmitters and hormones. For example OCS is due to low levels of seratonin. This reduces a complex disorder down to a neurotransmitter.

Explain Environmental Reductionism

A conclusion drawn by information gathered from observable behaviour. For example, behaviourism is only interested in observable behaviour, they argue that complex behaviours are a result of stimulus-response association chains.

Example of holistic approach

Humans react to stimuli in an organised and holistic manner. They also use qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual as well as interactions between them. this provides an overview of human understanding.

Strengths of Reductionism

Reductionism is More Compatible With Science

A holistic approach makes it difficult to study behaviour scientifically while reductionism gives the ability to operationonalise behaviour. For example, When testing memory capacity can be operationalised.

Therefore, we can control the variables to ensure causation.

Real World Application

Depression, OCD, schizophrenia and phobias all have medication aimed at targeting the cause of the symptoms. SSRIs in OCD patients have proved to be effective especially when compared to placebo groups (Soomro)

Therefore, patients quality of life is improved, this means they may take less sick time off work which will increase their consumerist spending due to increased income. This has a positive effect on the economy.

Limitations of Reductionism

Errors in Human Understanding

Biological reductionism has the tendency to ignore the complexity of human behaviour. The imbalance of chemicals may not always cause behaviour as correlation does not indicate causation.

This can be explained by brain plasticity as the brain changes based on your environment, however, changes in the brain will also affect the environment.

Methodology

A criticism of environmental reductionism comes from behaviourist theory. the theory is based on stimulus response association and much of the foundation of this research is based on non-human animals.

From a holistic perspective it is too simplisitic to say that these findings are universal given how different we are.

Therefore, if we rely on a stimulus-response then how do we test the more complex variables such as emotion.

Explain the Idiographic Approach

An approach to research that focuses on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.

Examples of research methods Idiographic psychologists would use

-Unstructured Interviews

-Thematic Analysis

-Case Studies

Example of the Idiographic Approach

Case Studies-patient KF had an impaired visual STM but not auditory. This undermines the multi-store model of memory.

Explain the Nomothetic Approach

Research that is concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people.

It aims to provide norms against which people can be compared,classified and measured, on the basis of which future behaviour can be predicted.

Types of research methods nomothetic psychologists are interested in.

They seek quantitative data to forumulate laws and generalise their results.

-Experiments

-Correlational Research

-Psychometric Testing

Approaches that take a Nomothetic Approach

Behaviourist Approach- Produced general laws of behaviour- Classical and Operant conditioning. For example, the behaviourist approach has allowed us to explain how individuals acquire and maintain phobias. This approach means that we are able to create a generalised law about the role of conditioning being the root cause of phobias, this can then be used to develop treatments such as systematic desensitisation.

Biological Approach- Seeks to portray the basic principles of how the brain works. eg. the biological approach has allowed us to pinpoint biological factors such as Seratonin claiming that it is responsible for the disorder. This means we are able to create a generalised law about the role of neurotransmitters being the root cause of OCD symptoms.

Strength of Discussing the Idiographic and Nomothetic Approach

Scientific

As the Nomothetic approach is considered more scientific, it is useful for controlling and predicting. This can be useful in establishing drug treatments.

eg. Identification of neurotransmitters involved in OCD has led to the development of SSRIs. This medication has then benefited peoples lives.

Therefore, it is important to make predictions about the most likely therapeutic solutions in order to improve patients lives.

However, Drug treatments don’t affect everyone the same, in this case an Idiographic approach may be more beneficial in order to target specific treatments at individuals.

Limitations of discussing the Idiographic vs Nomothetic debate

Allport- Argued that it is only by knowing the person as a person we can predict what the person will do in any situation.

Knowing 1% of people have Schizophophrenia doesnt tell anything about what its like to have Schizophrenia. This can lead to a loss in understanding.

Therefore, The Idiographic approach focuses psychology back on an individual level and to bring the person back into psychology.

Approaches Are Complementary

In the cognitive approach both methods are used are used in understanding memory. Nomothetic models are useful for understanding but Idiographic research can help us deepen our understanding and highlight issues.

Holt argues that we should not even be making a distinction between the approaches as they complement eachother. Researchers should use whichever approach fits their research better.

Therefore, this suggest that the debate lacks relevance.

Definition of Ethical Implications

The consequence of any research in terms of the effect on the individual participants or on the way in which certain groups are regarded.

Definition of Social Sensitivity

Sieber and Stanley define socially sensitive research as studies in which there are potential consequences either directly for the participants or for the class of individuals represented by the research on a wider societal level.

Example of Effect of Ethical Implications

Milgram- The participants were distressed and achieved in order to gain the results of the study. The findings of Milgram’s study are also important to prevent things such as Nazism and dictatorships. However, the research may also provide a framework for controlling people and creating dictatorships.

Ethical Implications of Bowlby

Bowlby argued that children form one special bond, usually with their mother. The attatchment bond will affect future relationships through an internal working model.

This encouraged the view that a women’s place is at home which made mothers feel guilty for wanting to go back to work. His research also contributed to the government pulling legislation to allow free childcare for under 3s

Aronson

Argued that researchers may have a social responsibility to investigate socially sensitive research.

Sieber and Stanley’s 4 ethical considerations

The Research Question- the researcher has to consider if knowing the answer of the question would have a positive use in society.

The Methodology Used- concerns the participants right to confidentiality and anonymity.

The Institutional Context- How the research will get funded and if this will influence the outcome of the research.

Interpretation and Application of Findings-How the data will be used

Ultimetly, the researcher needs to be upfront about their biases and approach.

Benefits of Socially Sensitive Research

Scar- argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues could promote greater sensitivity and understanding.

Research could help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance

Research on the unreliability of eyewitness testimonies has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system.

This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.

Describe Burt’s Research

-Conducted a study on intelligence.

-used studies of identical twins seperated at birth and found support for the view that regardless of your environment, intelligence is mostly inherited.

This led to the creation of the 11+ exam which streamlined students into ‘smart’ grammer schools or comprehensive schools to learn a trade.

It later transpired that Burt had made up a lot of his research, despite this the 11+ is still continued to be used in some places. The selective nature of the exam caused students to be labelled as ‘not intelligent’ and forced down a path they may not have chosen otherwise.

Strengths of Studying Socially Sensitive Research

Benefits for group who have been studied

First DSM listed homosexuality as part of a sociopathic personality disorder. Kinsey anonymously interviewed 5000 men and 6000 women about their sexual behaviour.

This led to a report credited with being the reason that homosexuality was removed from the DSM 20 years later.

Therefore, socially sensitive research can have a positive impact on society and improve individuals lives.

Policy

Certain groups such as policy makers rely on socially sensitive research. for example, in field such as childcare, healthcare, crime and mental health.

Governments look to this research when making decisions. This has helped the development of politically independent groups such as the office for national statistic, who are described as being responsible for collecting and analysing objective statistics about the UK’s economy.

Therefore, psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive issues, this supports Aronson’s view.

Limitations of Studying Socially Sensitive Research

Not all research is beneficial for groups that are studied

Tilhonen conducted research into a possible crimminal gene or at least a gene that is related to violent crime.

This gives rises to questions regarding where blame and responsibility lie within a crimminal act.

This also creates a situation of the success of rehabilitation programmes and eugenics.

Therefore, socially sensitive research may not benefit or have a postive impact on society, instead contradicting our current status quo.

Poor Research Design

poor research design may lead to erraneous findings, making claims based on these studies once released to the public can have longlasting effects. This was seen with Burt’s research into intelligence.

Therefore, we need to be careful with socially sensitive research due to the enduring effects on people.

Family Studies in Schizophrenia

Gottesman- found that someone with an aunt has a 2% chance of developing it, this increased to 9% if the individual is a sibling.

The concordance rates for MZ twins are 48%

This shows that the closer familial relationships you have with someone the more likely you are to develop the disorder.

The Role of Candidate genes in Schizophrenia

Research has shown that schizophrenia is polygenic

The most likely ones are those coding for the neurotransmitter dopamine.

Ripke-identified 108 genetic variations for schizophrenia, each with slightly increasing risk.

Role of Gene Mutation in Schizophrenia

A gene mutation is a random mutation in parental DNA. This may be caused by radiation, poisoning and viral infections. This means that a genetic origin of schizophrenia may be absent from family history yet the condition could still be caused by genetics.

Brown-Identified a positive correlation between parental age and risk of Schizophrenia. For fathers under 25 the risk is 0.7% while for fathers over 50 this doubles to 2%.

Outline the Dopamine Hypothesis

The dopamine hypothesis claims that an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine in certain regions of the brain such as those involved in mood and perception is linked to positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

eg. d2 receptors in Broca’s area may be linked to symptoms such as auditory halluncinations. Schizophrenics are thought to have abnormally high levels of d2 receptors which result in more dopamine binding and therefore more neurons firing.

What is the Revised Dopamine Hypothesis

-The negative symptoms of Schizophrenia are thought to arise from a deficit of dopamine in areas of the prefrontal cortex.

Patel-used PET scans to assess dopamine levels in schizophrenia and normal individuals. It was found that there was lower levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia patients compared to their normal controls.

Evaluate the Genetic Basis of Schizophrenia

Strong Evidence

Gottesman shows how genetic similarity and shared risk of schizophrenia are closely related.

Tienori-Adoption studies shows that children of schizophrenic parents are still at higher risk of schizophrenia even after being adopted by families with no history of the condition.

Therefore, this suggests that there is a genetic component to schizophrenia. However, this does not mean that schizophrenia is entirely genetic.

Biological Reductionism

Morkved-67% people with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders reported at least one childhood trauma as opposed to 38% of the control group with non-psychotic mental health problems.

This means that there is a strong correlation between childhood trauma and risk of schizophrenia.

Therefore, genetic factors alone cannot provide a complete explanation for the disorder which suggests that it may suffer from being biologically reductionist.

Evaluate the Neural Basis to Schizophrenia

Support For dopamine functioning correlating with Schizophrenia

Dopamine agonists like amphetamine that increase the levels of dopamine makes schizophrenia worse and can produce schizophrenia like symptoms in non sufferers.(Curran)

Further, antipsychotic drugs work by reducing dopamine activity and are used effectively with many schizophrenic patients. (Tauscher)

Research has also suggested that a number of candidate genes implicated in schizophrenia act on the number of d2 receptors.

Therefore, this strongly suggests that dopamine is involved in the symptoms of schizopohrenia, thereby supporting the dopamine hypothesis.

Evidence for Central Role of Glutamate

post-mortem and live scanning studies have consistently found raised levels of the neurotransmitter glutamate in several brain regions of people with schizophrenia. (McCutcheon)

In addition, several candidate genes for schizophrenia are bvelieved to be involved in the production of glutamate.

This means that an equally strong case can be made for a role of another neurotransmitter. This suggests that the dopamine hypothesis may be reductionist.