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Perspectives
psychologists use a variety of approaches or perspectives to explain why people think and act the way they do
Evolutionary Perspective
Mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose, they aid in survival & reproduction
Biological Perspective/ Biopsychology
The influence of genetics and brain chemistry (physical & biological processes)
Behavioral Perspective
focuses on observable behavior. People and animals are controlled by their environment. (Learned behaviors)
Cognitive Perspective
focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world (internal process of the mind), and how it influences behavior
Sociocultural Perspective
Focuses on society and culture in terms of our behavior and shaping cognition
Psychodynamic Perspective
emphasizes the importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships in explaining the underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people with psychological problems
Humanistic Perspective
the human capacity for choice and growth, motivation for people to fulfill their potential (self-actualization)
Biopsychosocial Approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis (forms links between multiple different perspectives)
Psychology
the scientific study of the mind and behavior
Confirmation Bias
the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct. To overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements
Empirical Evidence
information acquired by observation or experimentation
Scientific Method
a systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from this data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Falsifiable
capable of being disproved by experimental results
Peer Review
a process by which something proposed (as for research or publication) is evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field
Replication
the action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced
Reliability
the consistency of a research study or measuring test
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is supposed to
The American Psychological Association (APA)
a professional organization representing psychologist in the United States
Quantitative Data
Information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers
Qualitative Data
descriptive information, which often comes from interviews, focus groups, or artistic depictions such as photographs
Likert Scales
a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research
Structured Interviews
a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order.
Survey Technique
a research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions
Wording Effect
the effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data
Social Desirability Bias
a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
Naturalistic Observation
observing subjects in their natural environment, without manipulation or control by the researcher
Case Study
an in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community
Correlational Research
a type of non-experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis
Third Variable Problem
a form of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others
Scatterplot
a graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Positive Correlation
a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction. For example, as one variable increases, the other also increases, indicating a direct relationship
Negative Correlation
a relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions. For examples, as one variable increases the other decreases, indicating an inverse relationship
Experimental Method
a method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables
Independent Variable
the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher
Dependent Variable
the variable that is tested and measured in an experiment
Confounding Variable
a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association
Operational Definitions
Specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study
Experimental Group
the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested
Control Group
the group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experimenter Bias
a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome
Single-Blind Study
a study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group of the experimental group but the researchers do
Double-Blind Study
a study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment
Placebo Condition
a condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered
Sample
a subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research
Representative Sample
a sample that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population as a whole
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Sample Bias
a bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others
Generalizability
the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others
Statistics
a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data
Descriptive Statistics
statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population and inferences about a population based on a sample of data
Measure of Central Tendency
a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution
Mean
the average of a set of numerical values
Median
the middle value in a list of numbers
Mode
the value that appears most often in a set of data
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset
Normal Curve
a bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle
Regression to the Mean
the phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement
Positive Skew
this happens when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher
Negative Skew
this is when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down
Standard Deviation
a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values
Percentile Rank
the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it
Bimodal Distribution
a distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences
Statistical Significance
this tells us if the results of an experiment are probably true or just happened by chance. it checks if what we found in our experiment would happen often, or is rare when we think nothing special is going on
Effect Sizes
this measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment. For example, it tells us how much a medicine really helps compared to not using the medicine at all
Meta Analysis
a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies
Institutional Review Boards (IRB)
a committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjedcts, ensuring that ethical standards are met
Informed Consent
permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the risks and benefits
Confidentiality
the requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it
Deception
the act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation
Confederates
individual's who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team
Debriefing
providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used
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